1. Red Sea Diving Guide Pdf

This guide to Discovering the Animals, Plants, and Habitats of Egypt's Red Sea Reefs is intended to provide a simple, basic introduction to. Reefs, activities such as snorkeling and SCUBA diving can also damage corals. Some animals found on Egyptian coral. TDA & USAID..

Eilat (/eɪˈlɑːt/ay-LAHT, alsoUK: /eɪˈlæt/ay-LAT; Hebrew: אֵילַת[eˈlat](listen)) is Israel's southernmost city with a population of 50,724,^[1] a busy port and popular resort at the northern tip of the Red Sea, on what is known in Israel as the Gulf of Eilat and in Jordan as the Gulf of Aqaba. The city is considered a tourist destination for domestic and international tourists heading to Israel.

Eilat is part of the Southern Negev Desert, at the southern end of the Arava, adjacent to the Egyptian village of Taba to the south, the Jordanian port city of Aqaba to the east, and within sight of Saudi Arabia to the south-east, across the gulf.

Eilat's arid desert climate and low humidity are moderated by proximity to a warm sea. Temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in summer, and 21 °C (70 °F) in winter, while water temperatures range between 20 and 26 °C (68 and 79 °F). Eilat averages 360 sunny days a year.^[2]

• 3History
  • 3.2Modern city
• 8Transportation
  • 8.1Air
• 9Economy

Geography[edit]

The geology and landscape are varied: igneous and metamorphic rocks, sandstone and limestone; mountains up to 892 metres (2,927 ft) above sea level; broad valleys such as the Arava, and seashore on the Gulf of Aqaba. With an annual average rainfall of 28 millimetres (1.1 in) and summer temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) and higher, water resources and vegetation are limited. 'The main elements that influenced the region's history were the copper resources and other minerals, the ancient international roads that crossed the area, and its geopolitical and strategic position. These resulted in a settlement density that defies the environmental conditions.'^[3]

Name[edit]

The origin of the name Eilat, a place name found in the Hebrew Bible, is not definitively known, but likely comes from the Hebrew root A–Y–L (Hebrew: א. י. ל.‎), which is also the root for the word Elah (Hebrew: אלה‎), meaning Pistacia tree. Like numerous other localities, Eilat is mentioned in the Bible both in singular (possibly construct state) and plural form (Eilot).^[4] It is known in Arab world as Um El-Rarash (Arabic: أم الرشراش‎).

History[edit]

Ancient city[edit]

The original settlement was probably at the northern tip of the Gulf of Eilat.^[5]Archaeological excavations uncovered impressive prehistoric tombs dating to the 7th millennium BC at the western edge of Eilat, while nearby copper workings and mining operations at Timna Valley are the oldest on earth.^{[citation needed]}

Ancient Egyptian records also document the extensive and lucrative mining operations and trade across the Red Sea with Egypt starting as early as the Fourth dynasty of Egypt.^{[citation needed]} Eilat is mentioned in antiquity as a major trading partner with Elim, Thebes' Red Sea Port, as early as the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt.^{[citation needed]} Trade between Elim and Eilat furnished frankincense and myrrh, brought up from Ethiopia and Punt; bitumen and natron, from the Dead Sea; finely woven linen, from Byblos; and copper amulets, from Timna; all mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.^{[citation needed]} In antiquity Eilat bordered the states of Edom, Midian and the tribal territory of the Rephidim, the indigenous inhabitants of the Sinai Peninsula.^{[citation needed]}

Eilat is first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Exodus. The first six stations of the Exodus are in Egypt. The 7th is the crossing of the Red Sea and the 9th–13th are in and around Eilat, after the exodus from Egypt and crossing the Red Sea. Station 12 refers to a dozen campsites in and around Timna in Modern Israel near Eilat.^{[citation needed]} When King David conquered Edom,^[6] which up to then had shared a common border with Midian, he took over Eilat, the border city shared by them as well. The commercial port city and copper based industrial center were maintained by Egypt until reportedly rebuilt by Solomon at a location known as Ezion-Geber (I Kings 9:26). In 2 Kings 14:21–22, many decades later, 'All the people of Judah took Uzziah, who was sixteen years old, and made him king in the room of his father Amaziah. He rebuilt Elath, and restored it to Judah, after his father's death.' Later, in 2 Kings 16:6, during the reign of King Ahaz: 'At that time the king of Edom recovered Elath for Edom, and drove out the people of Judah and sent Edomites to live there, as they do to this day.'

It was a prosperous Judean trading port from the 9th through 7th centuries BCE.^[7]

During the Roman period, a road was built to link the area with the Nabataean city of Petra (in modern-day Jordan).An Islamic copper smelting and trading community of 250–400 residents flourished during the Umayyad Period (700–900 CE); its remains were found and excavated in 1989, at the northern edge of modern Eilat, between what is now the industrial zone and nearby KibbutzEilot.^[8]

Modern city[edit]

The area was designated as part of the Jewish state in the 1947 UN Partition Plan. The abandoned British police post of Umm Al-Rashrash was taken without a fight on March 10, 1949, as part of Operation Uvda.^[9][10] It was formally granted to Israel with the 1949 Armistice Agreements.

Construction of the city began shortly afterward. The Timna Copper Mines^[11] near Timna valley were opened, the Port of Eilat and Eilat Airport were built, the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline laid, and tourism began. The port became vital to the fledgling country's development. In the early 1950s, Eilat was a small and remote town, populated largely by port workers, soldiers, and former prisoners. A concerted effort by the Israeli government to populate Eilat began in 1955 when Jewish immigrant families from Morocco were resettled there. Eilat began to develop rapidly after the Suez Crisis in 1956, with its tourism industry in particular starting to flourish.

After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War Arab countries maintained a state of hostility with Israel, blocking all land routes; Israel's access to and trade with the rest of the world was by air and sea alone. Further, Egypt denied passage through the Suez Canal to Israeli-registered ships or to any ship carrying cargo to or from Israeli ports. This made Eilat and its sea port crucial to Israel's communications, commerce and trade with Africa and Asia, and for oil imports. Without recourse to a port on the Red Sea Israel would have been unable to develop its diplomatic, cultural and trade ties beyond the Mediterranean basin and Europe. This happened in 1956 and again in 1967, when Egypt's closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping effectively blockaded the port of Eilat.

In 1956, this led to Israel's participation alongside Britain and France in the war against Egypt sparked by the Suez Crisis, while in 1967 90% of Israeli oil passed through the Straits of Tiran.^[12] Oil tankers that were due to pass through the straits were delayed.^[13][14] The straits' closure was cited by Israel as an additional casus belli leading to the outbreak of the Six-Day War. Following peace treaties signed with Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, Eilat's borders with its neighbors were finally opened.

Israeli–Arab conflict[edit]

Eilat is especially defended by its own special forces unit Lotar Eilat. It is a reservist special forces unit of the IDF trained in counter-terrorism and hostage rescue in the Eilat area, which has taken part in many counter-terrorist missions in the region since its formation in 1974. The Lotar unit is composed solely of reservists, citizens who must be Eilat residents between the ages of 20 and 60, who are on call in case of a terrorist attack on the city. It is one of only three units in the IDF authorized to free hostages on its own command.^[15][16]

In 2007 the Eilat bakery bombing killed three civilian bakers.^[17][18] This was the first such attack in Eilat proper,^[19] although other terror attacks had been carried out in the area.^[20]

In 2011, terrorists infiltrated Israel across the Sinai border to execute multiple attacks on Highway 12, including a civilian bus and private car a few miles north of Eilat, in what became known as the 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks.^[21][22]

In order to prevent terrorist infiltration of Israel from the Sinai, Israel has built the Israel-Egypt barrier, a steel barrier equipped with cameras, radar and motion sensors along the country's southern border.^[23] The fence was completed in January 2013.^[24]

Future development plans[edit]

In July 2012, Israel signed an agreement with China to cooperate in building the high-speed railway to Eilat, a railway line which will serve both passenger and freight trains. It will link Eilat with Beersheba and Tel Aviv, and will run through the Arava Valley and Nahal Zin.^[25]

Currently, there are plans to vacate and dismantle Eilat Airport due to the plans for Ramon Airport, and develop the area. The new Ramon Airport is expected to open in January 2019, 18 kilometres (11 miles) north of Eilat and replace both Eilat Airport and Ovda Airport.^[26] Hotels and apartment buildings, containing a total of 2,080 hotel rooms and 1,000 apartments will be constructed on the site, as well as 275 dunams of public space and pedestrian paths. The plans also set aside space for the railway line and an underground railway station. The plan's goal is to create an urban continuum between the city center and North Beach, as well as tighten the links between the city's neighborhoods, which are currently separated by the airport.^[27]

In addition, there are plans to move the Port of Eilat and the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline terminal to the northern part of the city, as well as to turn it into a university town of science and research, and brand it an international sports city. All these projects are part of a plan to increase Eilat's population to 150,000 people and build 35,000 hotel rooms.^[28]

Climate[edit]

Eilat has a hot desert climate (BWh^[29] with hot, dry summers and warm and almost rainless winters in Köppen climate classification). Winters are usually between 11–23 °C (52–73 °F). Summers are usually between 26–40 °C (79–104 °F). There are relatively small coral reefs near Eilat; however, 50 years ago they were much larger.

Demographics[edit]

The overwhelming majority of Eilat's population are Jews. Arabs constitute about 4% of the population.^[36] Eilat's population includes a large number of foreign workers, estimated at over 10,000 working as caregivers, hotel workers and in the construction trades. Eilat also has a growing Israeli Arab population, as well as many affluent Jordanians and Egyptians who visit Eilat in the summer months.

In 2007, over 200 Sudanese refugees from Egypt who arrived in Israel illegally on foot were given work and allowed to stay in Eilat.^[37][38][39]

Education[edit]

The educational system of Eilat accommodates more than 9,000 youngsters in eight day-care centers, 67 pre-kindergartens and kindergartens, 10 elementary schools, and 3 six-year high schools. Also, there are some special-education schools and religious schools.^[40]Ben Gurion University of the Negev maintains a campus in Eilat. The Eilat branch has 1,100 students, about 75 percent from outside the city. In 2010, a new student dormitory was funded and built by the Jewish Federation of Toronto, the Rashi Foundation, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and the municipality of Eilat.^[41] The SPNI's Eilat Field School on the outskirts of Eilat offers special hiking tours that focus on desert ecology, the Red Sea, bird migration and other aspects of Eilat's flora and fauna.^[42]

Healthcare[edit]

Yoseftal Medical Center, established in 1968, is Israel's southernmost hospital, and the only hospital covering the southern Negev. With 65 beds, the hospital is Israel's smallest. Special services geared to the Red Sea region are a hyperbaric chamber to treat victims of diving accidents and kidney dialysis facilities open to vacationing tourists.^[43]

Transportation[edit]

Air[edit]

Since 2019, Ramon International Airport has handled commercial domestic and international flights to Eilat (IATA: ETM, ICAO: LLER).

Former airports[edit]

• Eilat Airport is located in the city centre and was used largely for domestic flights^[44] (IATA: ETH, ICAO: LLET).
• International flights often used Ovda International Airport some 50 kilometres (31 mi) northwest of the city^[45] (IATA: VDA, ICAO: LLOV).

Road[edit]

Eilat has two main roads connecting it with the center of Israel - Route 12, which leads North West, and Route 90 which leads North East, and South West to the border crossing with Egypt. Egged, the national bus company, provides regular service to points north on an almost hourly basis as well as in-city on a half-hourly basis during daylight hours.

Border crossings with Egypt and Jordan[edit]

• The Taba Border Crossing allows crossing to and from Taba, Egypt.
• The Wadi Araba Crossing, renamed the Yitzhak Rabin Border Crossing on the Israeli side, allows crossing to and from Aqaba, Jordan.

Maritime[edit]

The Port of Eilat and Eilat Marina allow travel by sea.

Future plans also call for a rail link, sometimes referred to as the Med-Red^[46] to decrease travel times substantially from Eilat to Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, via the existing line at Beer Sheba; planning is underway.

Economy[edit]

In the 1970s tourism became increasingly important to the city's economy as other industries shut down or were drastically reduced. Today tourism is the city's major source of income, although Eilat became a free trade zone in 1985.^[47]

Tourism[edit]

Eilat offers a wide range of accommodations, from hostels and luxury hotels to Bedouin hospitality. In recent years Eilat has been the target of militants from Egypt and Gaza causing a reduced tourist inflow to the region. Attractions include:

• Birdwatching and ringing station: Eilat is located on the main migration route between Africa and Europe. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat.^[48]
• Camel tours
• Coral Beach Nature Reserve, an underwater marine reserve of tropical marine flora and fauna
• Coral World Underwater Observatory, located at the southern tip of Coral Beach, it has aquaria, a museum, simulation rides, and shark, turtle, and stingray tanks. The observatory is the biggest public aquarium in the Middle East.^[49]
• Dolphin Reef, a marine biology and research station where visitors can swim and interact with dolphins^[50]
• Freefall parachuting.
• Yotvata Hai-Bar Nature Reserve, established in the 1960s to conserve endangered species, including Biblical animals, from this and similar regions. The reserve has a visitors' center, care and treatment enclosures, and large open area where desert animals are acclimated before re-introduction into the wild. Hai-Bar efforts have successfully re-introduced the Asian wild ass, or onager, into the Negev.^[51] The Hai-Bar Nature Reserve and animal re-introduction program were described in Bill Clark's book 'High Hills and Wild Goats: Life Among the Animals of the Hai-Bar Wildlife Refuge'. The book also describes life in Eilat and the surrounding area.^[52]
• Marina, with some 250 yacht berths
• Timna Valley Park, the oldest copper mines in the world; Egyptian temple of Hathor, King Solomon's Pillars sandstone formation, ancient pit mines and rock art^[53]
• 'What's Up', a portable astronomical observatory with programs in the desert and on the promenade^[54]
• Ice Mall, ice skating rink and shopping mall

Dive tourism[edit]

Skin and scuba diving equipment is for hire on or near all major beaches. Scuba diving equipment rental and compressed air are available from diving clubs and schools all year round. Eilat is located in the Gulf of Aqaba, one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. The coral reefs along Eilat's coast remain relatively pristine and the area is recognized as one of the prime diving locations in the world.^[55] About 250,000 dives are performed annually in Eilat's 11 km (6.84 mi) coastline, and diving represents 10% of the tourism income of this area.^[56] In addition, given the proximity of many of these reefs to the shore, non-divers can encounter the Red Sea's reefs with relative ease.^[55] Water conditions for SCUBA divers are good all year round, with water temperatures around 21–25 °C (70–77 °F), with little or no currents and clear waters with an average of 20–30 metres (66–98 feet) visibility.

Museums[edit]

• Eilat City Museum
• Eilat Art Gallery

Film[edit]

Eilat has been utilized by film and television productions - domestic and foreign - for location shooting since the 1960s, most notably in the early 90s as a tropical locale for season 2 of the Canadian production Tropical Heat.

It was also used in the films She, Madron, Ashanti and Rambo III.

Archaeology[edit]

Despite harsh conditions, the region has supported large populations as far back as 8,000 BCE.

Exploration of ancient sites began in 1861, but only 7% of the area has undergone serious archaeological excavation. Some 1,500 ancient sites are located in a 1,200-square-kilometre (460 sq mi) area. In contrast to the gaps found in settlement periods in the neighbouring Negev Highlands and Sinai, these sites show continuous settlement for the past 10,000 years.

Notable people[edit]

• Shawn Dawson (born in 1993), basketball player.
• Gadi Eizenkot (born in 1960, grew up in Eilat), Chief of General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces.
• Eden Harel (born in Eilat, 1976), actress.
• Amit Ivry (born in Eilat, 1989), Olympic swimmer and national record holder.
• Keren Karolina Avratz (born in 1971, grew up in Eilat), singer, songwriter.
• Shaul Mofaz (born in 1948, grew up in Eilat), former Minister of Defense, former Chief of General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces.
• Ziki Shaked (born in 1955), first Israeli ship's captain to go around the world under the Israeli flag, from Eilat to Eilat.
• Shahar Tzuberi (born in Eilat, 1986), Israeli Olympic bronze-medal-winning windsurfer, 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing.
• Raviv Ullman (born in Eilat, 1986), Israeli-American actor, musician.
• Ghil'ad Zuckermann (born in 1971, grew up in Eilat), linguist, revivalist.

Neighborhoods[edit]

Eilat neighborhoods are Arava, Ganim A, Ganim B, Hadekel, Ha'eshel, Mizpe Yam, Maar'av Sheva (also known as West7), Midbar, Ophir, Shahamon, Tse'elim, Urim, Ye'elim, Zofit Elite, and Zofit Tachtit.

Twin towns – sister cities[edit]

Eilat is twinned with:

• Acapulco, Mexico^[57]
• Antibes, France^[58][59]
• Arica, Chile^[58][60]
• Benidorm, Spain^[61]
• Durban, South Africa^[58][62]
• Juan-les-Pins, France^[59]
• Kamen, Germany^[63]
• Kampen, Netherlands^[58]
• Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic
• Los Angeles, United States^[58][64]
• Natal, Brasil
• Piešťany, Slovakia^[65]
• Serres, Greece
• Smolyan, Bulgaria^[58][66]
• Sopron, Hungary^[67]
• Toronto, Canada^[59]
• Ushuaia, Argentina^[59]
• Yalta, Ukraine
• Yinchuan, China

Eilat has streets named after Antibes, Durban, Kamen, Kampen and Los Angeles as well as a Canada Park.

Panoramic views[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^ ^ab'Localities File'(XLS). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
2. ^Discovering the World of the Bible, LaMar C. Berrett, (Cedar Fort 1996), page 204
3. ^Avner, U. 2008. Eilat Region. In, A. Stern (ed.). The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavation in the Holy Land, Volume 5 (Supplementary). Jerusalem. 1704–1711.
4. ^Grinzweig, Michael (1993). Cohen, Meir; Schiller, Eli (eds.). 'From the Items of the Name Eilat'. Ariel (in Hebrew). Ariel Publishing (93–94: Eilat – Human, Sea and Desert): 110.
5. ^Dr. Muhammed Abdul Nayeem, (1990). Prehistory and Protohistory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hyderabad. ISBN.
6. ^'ישראל המקדשית'. Gideon.022.co.il. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
7. ^Na'aman, N. (August 2007). 'When and How Did Jerusalem Become a Great City? The Rise of Jerusalem as Judah's Premier City in the Eighth-Seventh Centuries B.C.E.'. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. JSTOR. 347 (347): 21–56. doi:10.1086/basor25067021. JSTOR25067021.
8. ^Yehudah Rapuano (2013). 'An Early Islamic Settlement and a Possible Open-Air Mosque at Eilat'. 'Atiqot. 75: 129–165.
9. ^John S. Haupert (1964). 'Development of Israel's Frontier Port of Elat'. The Professional Geographer. 16 (2): 13–16. doi:10.1111/j.0033-0124.1964.00013.x.
10. ^Nowar, Maan Abu (2002). The history of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1. ed.). Oxford: Ithaca Press. p. 297. ISBN978-0863722868.
11. ^'Timna Copper Mines homepage'. Archived from the original on 2016-04-19.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
12. ^Avi Shlaim; William Roger Louis (13 February 2012). The 1967 Arab-Israeli War: Origins and Consequences. Cambridge University Press. p. 224. ISBN978-1-107-00236-4. 90% of Israeli oil was imported through the Straits of Tiran
13. ^Avi Shlaim; William Roger Louis (13 February 2012). The 1967 Arab-Israeli War: Origins and Consequences. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN978-1-107-00236-4.
14. ^'Daily brief to the U.S president on 27 May 1967'(PDF). 27 May 1967. 'diverted as was a sister ship yesterday
15. ^The real 24: An inside look at an elite IDF anti-terror unit Friday August 26, 2011
16. ^'5 Things You Didn't Know about the Eilat Counterterrorism Unit'. Archived from the original on 2016-02-20. Retrieved 2018-11-27.
17. ^Suicide Bomb Kills 3 in Bakery in Israel – The New York Times, Jan 29, 2007
18. ^'Eilat driver warned police about terrorist minutes before attack'. Haaretz. April 17, 2006.
19. ^'Peretz orders IDF to prepare for operations in Gaza'. The Jerusalem Post. January 29, 2007.
20. ^'Past terror attacks in the Eilat area'. Haaretz. January 29, 2007.
21. ^Harel, Amos (September 2, 2011). 'September songs'. Haaretz.
22. ^Wyre Davies (August 2, 2010). ''One killed' after rockets strike Jordan and Israel'. BBC. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
23. ^Joel Greenberg (2011-12-02). 'On Israel's uneasy border with Egypt, a fence rises'. Washington Post. Retrieved 2012-03-25.
24. ^Amos Harel (2011-11-13). 'On Israel-Egypt border, best defense is a good fence'. Haaretz. Retrieved 2012-01-07.
25. ^'Israel, China agree to build Eilat railway'. Globes. 2012-07-03. Archived from the original on 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
26. ^'Ramon Airport'. Ramon Airport Website. Retrieved 2016-01-30.
27. ^'Hotels, 1,000 apartments planned for Eilat Airport site'. Globes. 2012-04-03. Archived from the original on 2013-01-08. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
28. ^'Despite Japan, IEC chairman urges nuclear power'. Globes. 2011-03-15. Archived from the original on 2011-03-25. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
29. ^'Climate: Eilat - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table'. Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
30. ^'Averages and Records for Tel Aviv (Precipitation, Temperature and Records written in the page)'. Israel Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 14 September 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2010.(in Hebrew)
31. ^'Extremes for Tel Aviv [Records of February and May]'. Israel Meteorological Service. Retrieved 2 August 2015.(in Hebrew)
32. ^'Temperature average'. Israel Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2011.(in Hebrew)
33. ^'Precipitation average'. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011.(in Hebrew)
34. ^'Eilat Climate and Weather Averages, Israel'. Weather2Travel. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
35. ^'Locality File'. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2012. Archived from the original(XLS) on 2013-11-03. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
36. ^'The Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research Weblog: 'Mixed Cities' in Israel'. 2013-11-11.
37. ^Jonathan Saul, Elana Ringler for Reuters (2007). 'Sudanese refugees in Israel face uncertainty'. Boston Globe. Archived from the original on December 8, 2008. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
38. ^Joshua Mitnick (2006). 'Sudan's 'Genocide' Lands at Israel's Door'. The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
39. ^Neta Sela (2007). 'Israel must reject Darfur refugees, rabbi says'. Ynet News – Jewish World. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
40. ^Daniel Horowitz. 'UJA Federation of Greater Toronto'. Jewishtoronto.net. Archived from the original on February 9, 2009. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
41. ^'New Student Dormitories Dedicated in Eilat Campus'. 2010-05-15. Archived from the original on June 19, 2010. Retrieved 2013-08-08.
42. ^'SPNI field schools'. Aspni.org. Retrieved 2013-08-08.
43. ^'Clalit Health Services'. Clalit.org.il. Archived from the original on February 16, 2010. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
44. ^Israel Airports Authority (2007). 'Eilat Airport'. Israel Airports Authority. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
45. ^Israel Airports Authority (2007). 'Ovda Airport'. Israel Airports Authority. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
46. ^Moti Bassok, Cabinet examining plan for Med-Red railwayHaaretz, January 30, 2012
47. ^Maltz, Judy (January 12, 1989). 'Eilat turns to industry to complement tourism trade'. The Jerusalem Post. p. 9. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
48. ^'birdsofeilat.com'. birdsofeilat.com. Archived from the original on September 3, 2009. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
49. ^Coral World (2005). 'The Underwater Observatory Marine Park, Eilat'. Coral World. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
50. ^The Dolphin Reef Eilat (2007). 'The Freedom To Choose'. The Dolphin Reef Eilat. Archived from the original on November 18, 2007. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
51. ^The Red Sea Desert (2007). 'Hai-Bar Yotvata Nature Reserve'. The Red Sea Desert. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
52. ^Bill clark (1989). 'High Hills and Wild Goats: Life Among the Animals of the Hai-Bar Wildlife Refuge'. Little Brown and Company; 1st edition.
53. ^BiblePlaces.com (2007). 'Timna Valley'. BiblePlaces.com. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
54. ^''What's Up' Observatory in Eilat'. Whatsup.eilatnature.com. Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
55. ^ ^ab'MFA, Gulf of Aqaba- Tourism, 30 Sep 1997'. Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
56. ^Artificial Reefs and Dive Tourism in Eilat, Israel Dan Wilhelmsson, Marcus C. Öhman, Henrik Ståhl and Yechiam Shlesinger Ambio, Vol. 27, No. 8, Building Capacity for Coastal Management (Dec., 1998), pp. 764–766 Published by: Allen Press on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences [1]
57. ^'Twinning Ceremony between Acapulco and Eilat'. Keren Kayemeth LeIsrael. 30 July 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
58. ^ ^abcdef'Sister Cities'. Union of Local Authorities in Israel (ULAI). Archived from the original on October 4, 2013. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
59. ^ ^abcd'Eilat Sister Cities'. Israel-Times.com. November 7, 2007. Retrieved December 16, 2007.^{[dead link]}
60. ^'What we do: Humanitarian Aid'. Israel MFA. Archived from the original on May 31, 2010. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
61. ^Diez, Julián (27 August 2011). 'La ventana israelí al mar Rojo'. El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 3 August 2017.
62. ^'Facts about Durban'. September 7, 2003. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
63. ^'Weiterführende Informationen: Städtepartnerschaften'. Israel MFA. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
64. ^'Eilat, Israel – Sister Cities of Los Angeles'. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
65. ^'The anniversary of our sister city, Eilat'. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
66. ^'Municipal Smolyan'. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
67. ^'Sopron, Hungary, One Of Eilats Twin Cities'. Eilat Today. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved August 23, 2012.

External links[edit]

• Official city site(in Hebrew)
• A film about Eilat in 1960 commentary(in Hebrew)

The Red Sea is a seawaterinlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.

The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km² (169,100 mi²),^[1][2] is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough,^[3] and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea.

• 3History
• 4Oceanography
• 5Geology

Extent[edit]

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows:^[4]

On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez [A line running from Ràs Muhammed (27°43'N) to the South point of Shadwan Island (34°02'E) and thence Westward on a parallel (27°27'N) to the coast of Africa] and Aqaba [A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island (27°57′N34°36′E / 27.950°N 34.600°E) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinai Peninsula].

On the South. A line joining Husn Murad (12°40′N43°30′E / 12.667°N 43.500°E) and Ras Siyyan (12°29′N43°20′E / 12.483°N 43.333°E).

Names[edit]

Red Sea is a direct translation of the GreekErythra Thalassa (Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα), LatinMare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus, literally 'Arabian Gulf'), Arabic: البحر الأحمر‎, romanized: Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al-Qulzum, literally 'the Sea of Clysma'), SomaliBadda Cas and TigrinyaQeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface.^[5] A theory favoured by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used colour words to refer to the cardinal directions.^[6]Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably.^[7]

The name in Hebrew Yam Suph (Hebrew: ים סוף‎, lit.'Sea of Reeds') is of biblical origin.The name in Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ `ⲛϩⲁϩPhiom Enhah ('Sea of Hah') is connected to Egyptian root ḥḥ which refers to water and sea (for example the names of the Ogdoad gods Heh and Hauhet).^[8]

Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia).^[9] Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf^[10] or Gulf of Arabia.^[11][12]

The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph (Hebrew: ים סוף‎, lit.'Sea of Reeds') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean, and also to a region on Mars.

History[edit]

Ancient era[edit]

The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt. One such expedition took place around 2500 BCE, and another around 1500 BCE (by Hatshepsut). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea.^[13] Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible.^[14] The biblical Book of Exodus tells the account of the Israelites' crossing of a body of water, which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph (Hebrew: יַם סוּף). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum, meaning the Gulf of Suez.^[15]

In the 6th century BCE, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. In the late 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BCE. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ('Periplus of the Red Sea'), a Greekperiplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century , contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes.^[16] The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India.

The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus, when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD.^[17]

Middle Ages and modern era[edit]

During the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden^[18] but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters.

In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère, who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs. Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal, but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts but these were gradually dismantled following the First World War. After the Second World War, the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six-Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable to piracy.

Oceanography[edit]

The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert. Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south.^{[citation needed]}

The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents.^{[citation needed]}

The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms. The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea^[20] found surface water temperatures 28 °C (82 °F) in winter and up to 34 °C (93 °F) in the summer, but despite that extreme heat, the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana, the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana.^[21]Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensalalgae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere.^{[citation needed]}

Salinity[edit]

The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PSU; that translates to 3.5% of actual dissolved salts.)^{[citation needed]}

The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, by approximately 5‰. This is due to several factors:^{[citation needed]}

1. High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation.
2. Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea.
3. Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity.

Tidal range[edit]

In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area, the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas north of Jeddah in the Al-Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1–2 m/s (3–6.5 ft/s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.^{[citation needed]}

Current[edit]

Detailed information regarding current data is lacking, partially because the currents are weak and both spatially and temporally variable. The variation of temporal and spatial currents is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15–20 cm/s (6–8 in/s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50–60 cm/s (20–23.6 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) at the mouth of the al-Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north-northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s (3–11.4 in/s).^{[citation needed]}

Wind regime[edit]

The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north-west winds, with speeds ranging between 7 km/h (4.3 mph) and 12 km/h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward.^[22]

Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind-induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind-generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds.^[23]

Geology[edit]

The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening (in 2005, following a three-week period of tectonic activity it had grown by 8m),^[24] and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. Lake Asal in Djibouti is eligible as an experimental site to study the evolution of the deep hot brines of the Red Sea.^[25] Indeed, by observing the strontium isotope composition of the Red Sea brines, it is easy to deduce how these salt waters found at the bottom of the Red Sea could have evolved in a similar way to Lake Asal, which ideally represents their compositional extreme.^[25] The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms.^[26]

Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt-floored sink. Effects causing this would have been:

• A 'race' between the Red Sea widening and Perim Islanderupting filling the Bab el Mandeb with lava.
• The lowering of world sea level during the Ice Ages because of much water being locked up in the ice caps.

A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al-Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago, a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013.^[27][28][29]

Oilfields[edit]

The Durwara 2 Field was discovered in 1963, while the Suakin 1 Field and the Bashayer 1A Field were discovered in 1976, on the Egyptian side of the Red Sea. The Barqan Field was discovered in 1969, and the Midyan Field in 1992, both within the Midyan Basin on the Saudi Arabian side of the Red Sea. The 20-m thick Middle Miocene Maqna Formation is an oil source rock in the basin. Oil seeps occur near the Farasan Islands, the Dahlak Archipelago, along the coast of Eritrea, and in the southeastern Red Sea along the coasts of Saudi Arabia and Yemen.^[30]

Mineral resources[edit]

In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows:

• Biogenic constituents:

Nanofossils, foraminifera, pteropods, siliceous fossils

• Volcanogenic constituents:

Tuffites, volcanic ash, montmorillonite, cristobalite, zeolites

• Terrigenous constituents:

Quartz, feldspars, rock fragments, mica, heavy minerals, clay minerals

• Authigenic minerals:

Sulfide minerals, aragonite, Mg-calcite, protodolomite, dolomite, quartz, chalcedony.

Red Sea Diving Guide Pdf

• Evaporite minerals:

Magnesite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite, polyhalite

• Brine precipitate:

Fe-montmorillonite, goethite, hematite, siderite, rhodochrosite, pyrite, sphalerite, anhydrite.

Ecosystem[edit]

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1200 species of fish^[31] have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10% of these are found nowhere else.^[32] This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish.^[31]

The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000–7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark.

It contains 175 species of nudibranch, many of which are only found in the Red Sea.^[33]

The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts.

Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans.^[34]

Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans, mangroves and salt marshes.

Desalination plants[edit]

There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea.

There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals (chlorine and anti-scalants) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases in the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry.^[35]

The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling.

Security[edit]

The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe, the Persian Gulf and East Asia, and as such has heavy shipping traffic. Government-related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority, Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt, Jordan Maritime Authority, Israel Port Authority, Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan.

Facts and figures[edit]

• Length: ~2,250 km (1,398.1 mi) - 79% of the eastern Red Sea with numerous coastal inlets
• Maximum Width: ~ 306–355 km (190–220 mi)– Massawa (Eritrea)
• Minimum Width: ~ 26–29 km (16–18 mi)- Bab el Mandeb Strait (Yemen)
• Average Width: ~ 280 km (174.0 mi)
• Average Depth: ~ 490 m (1,607.6 ft)
• Maximum Depth: ~ 3,040 m (9,970 ft)
• Surface Area: 438-450 x 10² km² (16,900–17,400 sq mi)
• Volume: 215–251 x 10³ km³ (51,600–60,200 cu mi)

• Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow (under 100 m/330 ft), and about 25% is under 50 m (164 ft) deep.
• About 15% of the Red Sea is over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) depth that forms the deep axial trough.
• Shelf breaks are marked by coral reefs
• Continental slope has an irregular profile (series of steps down to ~500 m or 1,640 ft)
• Centre of Red Sea has a narrow trough (Suakin Trough) (~ 1,000 m or 3,281 ft; with maximum depth 3,040 m or 9,974 ft)

Tourism[edit]

The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed, SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef, The Brothers, Daedalus Reef, St.John's Reef, Rocky Island in Egypt^[36] and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb, Abington, Angarosh and Shaab Rumi.

The Red Sea became a popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques-Yves Cousteau.^[37] Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna, Hurghada, Safaga, Marsa Alam, on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm-el-Sheikh, Dahab, and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï, as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera.

The popular tourist beach of Sharm el-Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks, including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark-photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop-offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep-water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas.

Tourism to the region has been threatened by occasional terrorist attacks, and by incidents related to food safety standards.^[38][39]

Bordering countries[edit]

The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are:

• Eastern shore:
  • Saudi Arabia
  • Yemen
• Western shore:
  • Egypt
  • Sudan
  • Eritrea
  • Djibouti

The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and/or political ties with said areas.^[40][41]

Towns and cities[edit]

Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include:

See also[edit]

• MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98 ferry disaster

References[edit]

1. ^'The Red Sea'. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
2. ^'Red Sea'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
3. ^Robert Dinwiddie: Ocean_ The World's Last Wilderness Revealed. Dorling Kindersley, London 2008, p. 452
4. ^'Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition'(PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
5. ^'Red Sea'. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
6. ^'How the Red Sea Got its Name'.
7. ^Schmitt 1996
8. ^Vycichl, Werner (1983). Dictionnaire Etymologique de La Langue Copte. Leuven: Peeters. p. 320.
9. ^'Arabia'. World Digital Library. Retrieved 11 August 2013.
10. ^Michael D. Oblath (2004). The Exodus itinerary sites: their locations from the perspective of the biblical sources. Peter Lang. p. 53. ISBN978-0-8204-6716-0.
11. ^Herodotus, ed. George Rawlinson (2009), The histories, p.105
12. ^Andrew E. Hill, John H. Walton (2000), A survey of the Old Testament, p.32 [1]
13. ^Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 24. ISBN0-393-06259-7.
14. ^Louis, Jaucourt de chevalier (1765). Red Sea. pp. 367–368.
15. ^Tafsir, Saadia Gaon, s.v. Exodus 15:22, et al.
16. ^Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 32–33. ISBN0-393-06259-7.
17. ^East, W. Gordon (1965). The Geography behind History. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 174–175. ISBN0-393-00419-8.
18. ^By M. D. D. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668, p.87, Routledge, 2005, ISBN0-415-23979-6
19. ^'Egyptian Dust Plume, Red Sea'. earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 8 July 2013.
20. ^BBC 2 television program 'Oceans 3/8 The Red Sea', 8 pm - 9 pm Wednesday 26 November 2008
21. ^'Virus protects coral from 'white plague',' at New Scientist, 7 July 2012.p.17.
22. ^Patzer, W. C. (1974), Wind-induced reversal in the Red Sea circulation, Deep Sea Research, 21, 109-121.
23. ^Morcos, S. A. (1970), Physical and chemical oceanography of the Red Sea,Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, 8, 73-202.
24. ^Rose, Paul; Laking, Anne (2008). Oceans: Exploring the hidden depths of the underwater world. London: BBC Books. ISBN978-1-84-607505-6.
25. ^ ^abBoschetti, Tiziano; Awaleh, Mohamed Osman; Barbieri, Maurizio (2018). 'Waters from the Djiboutian Afar: a review of strontium isotopic composition and a comparison with Ethiopian waters and Red Sea brines'. Water. 10. doi:10.3390/w10111700.
26. ^Degens, Egon T. (ed.), 1969, Hot Brines and Recent Heavy Metal Deposits in the Red Sea, 600 pp, Springer-Verlag
27. ^'MSN - Outlook, Office, Skype, Bing, Breaking News, and Latest Videos'. www.msnbc.msn.com.
28. ^Israel, Brett (December 28, 2011). 'New Island Rises in the Red Sea'. LiveScience.com. Retrieved 2015-07-31.
29. ^Oskin, Becky; SPACE.com (May 30, 2015). 'Red Sea Parts for 2 New Islands'. Scientific American. Retrieved 2015-07-31.
30. ^Lindquist, Sandra (1998). The Red Sea Province: Sudr-Nubia(!) and Maqna(!) Petroleum Systems, USGS Open File Report 99-50-A. US Dept. of the Interior. pp. 6–7, 9.
31. ^ ^abFroese, Ranier; Pauly, Daniel (2009). 'FishBase'. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
32. ^Siliotti, A. (2002). Verona, Geodia (ed.). Fishes of the red sea. ISBN88-87177-42-2.
33. ^Yonow, Nathalie (2012). 'Nature's Best-Dressed'. Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 63 no. 4. Aramco Services Company. pp. 2–9. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
34. ^Lieske, E. and Myers, R.F. (2004) Coral reef guide; Red Sea London, HarperCollins ISBN0-00-715986-2
35. ^Mabrook, B. 'Environmental Impact of Waste Brine Disposal of Desalination Plants, Red Sea, Egypt', Desalination, 1994, Vol.97, pp.453-465.
36. ^'Scuba Diving in Egypt - Red Sea - Dive The World Vacations'. www.dive-the-world.com.
37. ^Philippe Cousteau Jnr (23 April 2010). Jacques Cousteau's underworld village in the Red Sea. BBC Earth. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
38. ^Walsh, Declan; Karasz, Palko (24 August 2018). 'Hundreds of Tourists Evacuated From Hotel in Egypt After Britons' Sudden Death'. New York Times. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
39. ^Regev, Dana (15 July 2017). 'Egypt's tourism industry suffers a critical blow'. DW. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
40. ^Barth, Hans-Jörg (2002). Sabkha ecosystems, Volume 2. Springer. p. 148. ISBN1-4020-0504-0.
41. ^Makinda, Samuel M. (1987). Superpower diplomacy in the Horn of Africa. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN0-7099-4662-7.

Further reading[edit]

• Hamblin, W. Kenneth & Christiansen, Eric H. (1998). Earth's Dynamic Systems (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. ISBN0-13-745373-6.
• Miran, Jonathan. (2018). 'The Red Sea,' in David Armitage, Alison Bashford and Sujit Sivasundaram (eds.), Oceanic Histories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 156–181.

External links[edit]

• Potts, D., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. 'Places: 39290 (Arabicus Sinus/Erythr(ae)um/Rubrum Mare)'. Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)