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Euripides (/jʊəˈrɪpɪdiːz/;^[1]Greek: ΕὐριπίδηςEurīpídēs, pronounced [eu̯.riː.pí.dɛːs]; c. 480 – c. 406 BC) was a tragedian of classical Athens. Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom a significant number of plays have survived. Some ancient scholars attributed 95 plays to him but, according to the Suda, it was 92 at most. Of these, 18 or 19 have survived more or less complete (there has been debate about his authorship of Rhesus, largely on stylistic grounds)^[2] and there are also fragments, some substantial, of most of the other plays. More of his plays have survived intact than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly because his popularity grew as theirs declined^[3][4]—he became, in the Hellenistic Age, a cornerstone of ancient literary education, along with Homer, Demosthenes, and Menander.^[5]

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Euripides is identified with theatrical innovations that have profoundly influenced drama down to modern times, especially in the representation of traditional, mythical heroes as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances. This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, some of which are characteristic of romance. Yet he also became 'the most tragic of poets',^{[nb 1]} focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown.^[6][7] He was 'the creator of...that cage which is the theatre of Shakespeare's Othello, Racine's Phèdre, of Ibsen and Strindberg,' in which '...imprisoned men and women destroy each other by the intensity of their loves and hates',^[8] and yet he was also the literary ancestor of comic dramatists as diverse as Menander and George Bernard Shaw.^[9]

Unique among writers of Ancient Athens, Euripides demonstrated sympathy towards the underrepresented members of society.^[6][10] His male contemporaries were frequently shocked by the 'heresies' he put into the mouths of characters, such as these words of his heroine Medea:

Sooner would I stand
Three times to face their battles, shield in hand,
Than bear one child!^[11]

His contemporaries associated him with Socrates as a leader of a decadent intellectualism, both of them being frequently lampooned by comic poets such as Aristophanes. Whereas Socrates was eventually put on trial and executed as a corrupting influence, Euripides chose a voluntary exile in old age, dying in Macedonia.^[12] Recent scholarship casts doubt on ancient biographies of Euripides. For example, it is possible that he never visited Macedonia at all,^[13] or, if he did, he might have been drawn there by King Archelaus with incentives that were also offered to other artists.^[14]

• 1Life
• 2Work
• 4Texts

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Life[edit]

Traditional accounts of the author's life are found in many commentaries and include details such as these: He was born on Salamis Island around 480 BC, with parents Cleito (mother) and Mnesarchus (father), a retailer who lived in a village near Athens. Upon the receipt of an oracle saying that his son was fated to win 'crowns of victory', Mnesarchus insisted that the boy should train for a career in athletics. In fact the boy was destined for a career on the stage, where however he was to win only five victories, one of which was after his death. He served for a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at the rites of Apollo Zosterius. His education was not confined to athletics: he also studied painting and philosophy under the masters Prodicus and Anaxagoras. He had two disastrous marriages and both his wives—Melite and Choerine (the latter bearing him three sons)—were unfaithful. He became a recluse, making a home for himself in a cave on Salamis (The Cave of Euripides, where a cult of the playwright developed after his death). 'There he built an impressive library and pursued daily communion with the sea and sky'. Eventually he retired to the 'rustic court' of King Archelaus in Macedonia, where he died in 406 BC.^[15] However, as mentioned in the introduction, biographical details such as these should be regarded with scepticism. They are derived almost entirely from three unreliable sources:^[16]

• folklore, employed by the ancients to lend colour to the lives of celebrated authors;
• parody, employed by contemporary comic poets to ridicule tragic poets;
• 'autobiographical' clues gleaned from his extant plays (a mere fraction of his total output).

This biography is divided into three sections corresponding to the three kinds of sources.

A fabled life[edit]

Euripides was the youngest in a set of three great tragedians who were almost contemporaries: his first play was staged thirteen years after Sophocles' debut and only three years after Aeschylus's masterpiece, the Oresteia. The identity of the trio is neatly underscored by a patriotic account of their roles during Greece's great victory over Persia at the Battle of Salamis—Aeschylus fought there, Sophocles was just old enough to celebrate the victory in a boys' chorus and Euripides was born on the very day of the battle.^[16] The apocryphal account that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island was a late tradition and it probably symbolizes the isolation of an intellectual who was rather ahead of his time.^[17] Much of his life and his whole career coincided with the struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece but he didn't live to see the final defeat of his city. It is said that he died in Macedonia after being attacked by the Molossian hounds of King Archelaus and that his cenotaph near Piraeus was struck by lightning—signs of his unique powers, whether for good or ill (according to one modern scholar, his death might have been caused instead by the harsh Macedonian winter).^[18] In an account by Plutarch, the catastrophic failure of the Sicilian expedition led Athenians to trade renditions of Euripides' lyrics to their enemies in return for food and drink (Life of Nicias 29). Plutarch is the source also for the story that the victorious Spartan generals, having planned the demolition of Athens and the enslavement of its people, grew merciful after being entertained at a banquet by lyrics from Euripides' play Electra: 'they felt that it would be a barbarous act to annihilate a city which produced such men' (Life of Lysander).^[19]

A comic life[edit]

Tragic poets were often mocked by comic poets during the dramatic festivals Dionysia and Lenaia, and Euripides was travestied more than most. Aristophanes scripted him as a character in at least three plays: The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae and The Frogs. Yet Aristophanes borrowed rather than just satirized some of the tragedian's methods; he was once ridiculed by a colleague, Cratinus, as 'a hair-splitting master of niceties, a Euripidaristophanist'.^[20] According to another comic poet, Teleclides, the plays of Euripides were co-authored by the philosopher Socrates.^[21] According to Aristophanes, the alleged co-author was a celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who also shared the tragedian's house and his wife,^[22] while Socrates taught an entire school of quibblers like Euripides:

They sit at the feet of Socrates
Till they can't distinguish the wood from the trees,
And tragedy goes to POT;
They don't care whether their plays are art
But only whether the words are smart;
They waste our time with quibbles and quarrels,
Destroying our patience as well as our morals,
And making us all talk ROT.^[23]

In The Frogs, composed after Euripides and Aeschylus were both dead, Aristophanes imagines the god Dionysus venturing down to Hades in search of a good poet to bring back to Athens. After a debate between the two deceased bards, the god brings Aeschylus back to life as more useful to Athens on account of his wisdom, rejecting Euripides as merely clever. Such comic 'evidence' suggests that Athenians admired Euripides even while they mistrusted his intellectualism, at least during the long war with Sparta. Aeschylus had written his own epitaph commemorating his life as a warrior fighting for Athens against Persia, without any mention of his success as a playwright, and Sophocles was celebrated by his contemporaries for his social gifts and contributions to public life as a state official, but there are no records of Euripides' public life except as a dramatist—he could well have been 'a brooding and bookish recluse'.^[24] He is presented as such in The Acharnians, where Aristophanes shows him to be living morosely in a precarious house, surrounded by the tattered costumes of his disreputable characters (and yet Agathon, another tragic poet, is discovered in a later play, Thesmophoriazusae, to be living in circumstances almost as bizarre). Euripides' mother was a humble vendor of vegetables, according to the comic tradition, yet his plays indicate that he had a liberal education and hence a privileged background.^[16]

A tragedian's life[edit]

Euripides first competed in the City Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus, and it was not until 441 BC that he won a first prize. His final competition in Athens was in 408 BC. The Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis were performed after his death in 405 BC and first prize was awarded posthumously. Altogether his plays won first prize only five times.

His plays and those of Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate a difference in outlook between the three men—a generation gap probably due to the Sophistic enlightenment in the middle decades of the 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic period, Sophocles was in transition between periods, and Euripides was fully imbued with the new spirit of the classical age.^[25] When Euripides' plays are sequenced in time, they also reveal that his outlook might have changed, providing a 'spiritual biography' along these lines:

• an early period of high tragedy (Medea, Hippolytus)
• a patriotic period at the outset of the Peloponnesian War (Children of Heracles, The Suppliants)
• a middle period of disillusionment at the senselessness of war (Hecuba, The Trojan Women)
• an escapist period with a focus on romantic intrigue (Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris, Helen)
• a final period of tragic despair (Orestes, Phoenician Women, The Bacchae)

However, about 80% of his plays have been lost and even the extant plays do not present a fully consistent picture of his 'spiritual' development (for example, Iphigenia in Aulis is dated with the 'despairing' Bacchae, yet it contains elements that became typical of New Comedy).^[26] In the Bacchae, he restores the chorus and messenger speech to their traditional role in the tragic plot, and the play appears to be the culmination of a regressive or archaizing tendency in his later works (for which see Chronology below). Believed to have been composed in the wilds of Macedonia, Bacchae also happens to dramatize a primitive side to Greek religion and some modern scholars have therefore interpreted this particular play biographically as:

• a kind of death-bed conversion or renunciation of atheism;
• the poet's attempt to ward off the charge of impiety that was later to overtake his friend Socrates;
• evidence of a new belief that religion cannot be analysed rationally.^[27]

One of his earliest extant plays, Medea, includes a speech that he seems to have written in defence of himself as an intellectual ahead of his time, though he has put it in the mouth of the play's heroine:^[12]

If you introduce new, intelligent ideas to fools, you will be thought frivolous, not intelligent. On the other hand, if you do get a reputation for surpassing those who are supposed to be intellectually sophisticated, you will seem to be a thorn in the city's flesh. This is what has happened to me. — Medea, lines 298–302^[28]

Work[edit]

Athenian tragedy in performance during Euripides' lifetime was a public contest between playwrights. The state funded it and awarded prizes to the winners. The language was spoken and sung verse, the performance area included a circular floor or orchestra where the chorus could dance, a space for actors (three speaking actors in Euripides' time), a backdrop or skene and some special effects: an ekkyklema (used to bring the skene's 'indoors' outdoors) and a mechane (used to lift actors in the air, as in deus ex machina). With the introduction of the third actor (an innovation attributed to Sophocles), acting also began to be regarded as a skill to be rewarded with prizes, requiring a long apprenticeship in the chorus. Euripides and other playwrights accordingly composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to sing and this tendency becomes more marked in his later plays:^[29] tragedy was a 'living and ever-changing genre'^[30] (other changes in his work are touched on in the previous section and in Chronology; a list of his plays is given in Extant plays below).

The comic poet, Aristophanes, is the earliest known critic to characterize Euripides as a spokesman for destructive, new ideas, associated with declining standards in both society and tragedy (see Reception for more). However, 5th century tragedy was a social gathering for 'carrying out quite publicly the maintenance and development of mental infrastructure' and it offered spectators a 'platform for an utterly unique form of institutionalized discussion'.^[31] A dramatist's role was not just to entertain but also to educate his fellow citizens—he was expected to have a message.^[32] Traditional myth provided the subject matter but the dramatist was meant to be innovative so as to sustain interest, which led to novel characterization of heroic figures^[33] and to use of the mythical past to talk about present issues.^[34] The difference between Euripides and his older colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about the present more controversially and more pointedly than did those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, sometimes even challenging the democratic order. Thus, for example, Odysseus is represented in Hecuba (lines 131–32) as 'agile-minded, sweet-talking, demos-pleasing' i.e., a type of the war-time demagogues that were active in Athens during the Peloponnesian War.^[35] Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles sometimes distinguished between slaves who are servile by nature and those who are slaves by mere circumstance but Euripides' speakers go further, positing an individual's mental rather than social or physical condition as the true index of worth.^[36] Thus in Hippolytus, a love-sick queen rationalizes her position and arrives at this comment on intrinsic merit while reflecting on adultery:

It was from noble families that this evil first started, and when shameful things seem to be approved by the fashionable, then the common people will surely think them correct...This only, they say, stands the stress of life: a good and just spirit in a man.^[37]

Euripides' characters resembled contemporary Athenians rather than heroic figures of myth.

For achieving his end Euripides' regular strategy is a very simple one: retaining the old stories and the great names, as his theatre required, he imagines his people as contemporaries subjected to contemporary kinds of pressures, and examines their motivations, conduct and fate in the light of contemporary problems, usages and ideals.

As mouthpieces for contemporary issues, they 'all seem to have had at least an elementary course in public speaking'.^[39] The dialogue often contrasts so strongly with the mythical and heroic setting, it looks as if Euripides aimed at parody, as for example in The Trojan Women, where the heroine's rationalized prayer provokes comment from Menelaus:

Hecuba:...O Zeus, whether you are the Law of Necessity in nature, or the Law of Reason in man, hear my prayers. You are everywhere, pursuing your noiseless path, ordering the affairs of mortals according to justice.

Menelaus: What's this? You are starting a new fashion in prayer.^[40]

Athenian citizens were familiar with rhetoric in the assembly and law courts, and some scholars believe that Euripides was more interested in his characters as speakers with cases to argue than as characters with lifelike personalities.^[41] They are self-conscious about speaking formally and their rhetoric is shown to be flawed, as if Euripides was exploring the problematical nature of language and communication: 'For speech points in three different directions at once, to the speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in the world it describes, and each of these directions can be felt as skewed'.^[42] Thus in the example above, Hecuba presents herself as a sophisticated intellectual describing a rationalized cosmos yet the speech is ill-matched to her audience, Menelaus (a type of the unsophisticated listener), and soon it is found not to suit the cosmos either (her infant grandson is brutally murdered by the victorious Greeks). In Hippolytus, speeches appear verbose and ungainly as if to underscore the limitations of language.^[43]

Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and Sophocles created comic effects contrasting the heroic with the mundane, but they employed minor supporting characters for that purpose, whereas the younger poet was more insistent, using major characters as well. His comic touches can be thought to intensify the overall tragic effect, and his realism, which often threatens to make his heroes look ridiculous, marks a world of debased heroism: 'The loss of intellectual and moral substance becomes a central tragic statement'.^[44] Psychological reversals are common and sometimes happen so suddenly that inconsistency in characterization is an issue for many critics,^[45] such as Aristotle, who cited Iphigenia in Aulis as an example (Poetics 1454a32). For others, psychological inconsistency is not a stumbling block to good drama: 'Euripides is in pursuit of a larger insight: he aims to set forth the two modes, emotional and rational, with which human beings confront their own mortality.'^[46] Some however consider unpredictable behaviour to be realistic in tragedy: 'everywhere in Euripides a preoccupation with individual psychology and its irrational aspects is evident....In his hands tragedy for the first time probed the inner recesses of the human soul and let passions spin the plot.'^[41] The tension between reason and passion is symbolized by his character's relationship with the gods,^[47] as in Hecuba's prayer, answered not by Zeus, nor by the Law of Reason, but by brutal Menelaus as if speaking on behalf of the old gods, and most famously in Bacchae, where the god Dionysus savages his own converts. And yet when the gods appear deus ex machina, as they do in eight of the extant plays, they appear 'lifeless and mechanical'.^[48] Sometimes condemned by critics as an unimaginative way to end a story, the spectacle of a 'god' making a judgement or announcement from a theatrical crane might actually have been intended to provoke scepticism about the religious and heroic dimension of his plays.^[49][50] Similarly his plays often begin in a banal manner that undermines theatrical illusion. Unlike Sophocles, who established the setting and background of his plays in the introductory dialogue, Euripides used a monologue in which a divinity or human character directly and simply tells the audience all it needs to know in order to understand the subsequent action.^[51]

Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, but Euripides had arrived at a position in the 'ever-changing genre' where he could move easily between tragic, comic, romantic and political effects, a versatility that appears in individual plays and also over the course of his career. Potential for comedy lay in his use of 'contemporary' characters, in his sophisticated tone, his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below), and in his ingenious use of plots centred on motifs that later became standard in Menander's New Comedy, such as the 'recognition scene'. Other tragedians also used recognition scenes but they were heroic in emphasis, as in Aeschylus's The Libation Bearers, which Euripides parodied with his mundane treatment of it in Electra (Euripides was unique among the tragedians in incorporating theatrical criticism in his plays).^[52] Traditional myth, with its exotic settings, heroic adventures and epic battles, offered potential for romantic melodrama as well as for political comments on a war theme,^[53] so that his plays are an extraordinary mix of elements. The Trojan Women for example is a powerfully disturbing play on the theme of war's horrors, apparently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed in the aftermath of the Melian massacre and during the preparations for the Sicilian Expedition)^[54] yet it features the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above and the chorus considers Athens, the 'blessed land of Theus', to be a desirable refuge—such complexity and ambiguity are typical both of his 'patriotic' and 'anti-war' plays.^[55]

Tragic poets in the 5th century competed against one another at the City Dionysia, each with a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a satyr-play. The few extant fragments of satyr-plays attributed to Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate that these were a loosely structured, simple and jovial form of entertainment. However, in Cyclops (the only complete satyr-play that survives) Euripides structured the entertainment more like a tragedy and introduced a note of critical irony typical of his other work. His genre-bending inventiveness is shown above all in Alcestis, a blend of tragic and satyric elements. This fourth play in his tetralogy for 438 BC (i.e., it occupied the position conventionally reserved for satyr-plays) is a 'tragedy' that features Heracles as a satyric hero in conventional satyr-play scenes, involving an arrival, a banquet, a victory over an ogre (in this case, Death), a happy ending, a feast and a departure to new adventures.^[56] Most of the big innovations in tragedy were made by Aeschylus and Sophocles and yet 'Euripides made innovations on a smaller scale that have impressed some critics as cumulatively leading to a radical change of direction'.^[57]

Euripides is also known for his use of irony. Many Greek tragedians make use of dramatic irony to bring out the emotion and realism of their characters or plays, but Euripides uses irony to foreshadow events and occasionally amuse his audience. For example, in his play Heracles, Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to see them grow. The tragic irony and foreshadow here is that later, Heracles will be driven into a madness by Hera and will kill his own children, along with his wife Megara. Similarly, in Helen, Theoclymenus remarks how happy he is that his sister has the gift of prophecy and will warn him of any plots or tricks against him (while the audience already knows that she has betrayed him to help Helen and Menelaus escape). In this instance, not only is Euripides using irony for foreshadow, but for a comedic effect as well—something few tragedians did. Likewise, in the Bacchae, Pentheus’ first threat to the god Dionysus is that if he catches him in his city, he will ‘chop off his head’; in the final acts of the tragic-comic play, Pentheus is killed by his mother (who was driven mad by Dionysus) and is beheaded. While some of his irony can be interpreted as dark humor, Euripides makes use of irony in his works to foreshadow future events and occasionally include a comedic undertone.

In Greek[edit]

The spoken language of the plays is not fundamentally different in style from that of Aeschylus or Sophocles—it employs poetic meters, a rarefied vocabulary, fullness of expression, complex syntax, and ornamental figures, all aimed at representing an elevated style.^[58] However, its rhythms are somewhat freer and more natural than that of his predecessors, and the vocabulary has been expanded to allow for intellectual and psychological subtleties. Euripides was also a great lyric poet. In Medea, for example, he composed for his city, Athens, 'the noblest of her songs of praise'.^[59] His lyric skills however are not just confined to individual poems: 'A play of Euripides is a musical whole...one song echoes motifs from the preceding song, while introducing new ones.'^[60] For some critics, the lyrics often seem dislocated from the action but the extent and significance of this is 'a matter of scholarly debate'.^[61] See Chronology for details about his style in the original Greek.

Reception[edit]

Euripides has aroused and continues to arouse strong opinions for and against his work:

He was a problem to his contemporaries and he is one still; over the course of centuries since his plays were first produced he has been hailed or indicted under a bewildering variety of labels. He has been described as 'the poet of the Greek enlightenment' and also as 'Euripides the irrationalist';^{[nb 2]} as a religious sceptic if not an atheist, but on the other hand, as a believer in divine providence and the ultimate justice of divine dispensation. He has been seen as a profound explorer of human psychology and also a rhetorical poet who subordinated consistency of character to verbal effect; as a misogynist and a feminist; as a realist who brought tragic action down to the level of everyday life and as a romantic poet who chose unusual myths and exotic settings. He wrote plays which have been widely understood as patriotic pieces supporting Athens' war against Sparta and others which many have taken as the work of the anti-war dramatist par excellence, even as attacks on Athenian imperialism. He has been recognized as the precursor of New Comedy and also what Aristotle called him: 'the most tragic of poets' (Poetics 1453a30). And not one of these descriptions is entirely false. — Bernard Knox^[62]

Aeschylus gained thirteen victories as a dramatist, Sophocles at least twenty, Euripides only four in his lifetime, and this has often been taken as an indication of the latter's unpopularity with his contemporaries, and yet a first place might not have been the main criterion for success in those times (the system of selecting judges appears to have been flawed) and merely being chosen to compete was in itself a mark of distinction.^[63] Moreover, to have been singled out by Aristophanes for so much comic attention is proof of popular interest in his work.^[64] Sophocles was appreciative enough of the younger poet to be influenced by him, as is evident in his later plays Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus.^[65] Less than a hundred years later, Aristotle developed an almost 'biological' theory of the development of tragedy in Athens: according to this view, the art form grew under the influence of Aeschylus, matured in the hands of Sophocles then began its precipitous decline with Euripides.^[66] However, 'his plays continued to be applauded even after those of Aeschylus and Sophocles had come to seem remote and irrelevant',^[4] they became school classics in the Hellenistic period (as mentioned in the introduction) and, due to Seneca's adaptation of his work for Roman audiences, 'it was Euripides, not Aeschylus or Sophocles, whose tragic muse presided over the rebirth of tragedy in Renaissance Europe.'^[67]

In the seventeenth century, Racine expressed admiration for Sophocles but was more influenced by Euripides (e.g. Iphigenia in Aulis and Hippolytus were the models for his plays Iphigénie and Phèdre).^[68] Euripides' reputation was to take a beating early in the 19th century when Friedrich Schlegel and his brother August Wilhelm Schlegel championed Aristotle's 'biological' model of theatre history, identifying Euripides with the moral, political and artistic degeneration of Athens.^[69] August Wilhelm's Vienna lectures on dramatic art and literature went through four editions between 1809 and 1846 and, in them, he opined that Euripides 'not only destroyed the external order of tragedy but missed its entire meaning,' a view that came to influence Friedrich Nietzsche, who however seems not to have known the Euripidean plays at all well.^[70] However literary figures such as the poet Robert Browning and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning could study and admire the Schlegels while still appreciating Euripides as 'our Euripides the human' (Wine of Cyprus stanza 12).^[69] Classicists such as Arthur Verrall and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff reacted against the views of the Schlegels and Nietzsche, constructing arguments sympathetic to Euripides,^[71] which involved Wilamowitz in this restatement of Greek tragedy as a genre: 'A [Greek] tragedy does not have to end 'tragically' or be 'tragic'. The only requirement is a serious treatment.'^[72] In the English-speaking world, the pacifist Gilbert Murray played an important role in popularizing Euripides, influenced perhaps by his anti-war plays.^[73] Today, as in the time of Euripides, traditional assumptions are constantly under challenge and audiences therefore have a natural affinity with the Euripidean outlook^[32] which seems nearer to ours for example than the Elizabethan.^[4] As stated above, however, opinions continue to diverge, so that one recent critic might dismiss the debates in Euripides' plays as 'self-indulgent digression for the sake of rhetorical display'^[74] and another springs to the poet's defence in terms such as: 'His plays are remarkable for their range of tones and the gleeful inventiveness, which morose critics call cynical artificiality, of their construction.'^[75]

Texts[edit]

Transmission[edit]

The textual transmission of the plays from the 5th century BC, when they were first written, up until the era of the printing press, was largely a haphazard process in which much of Euripides' work was lost and corrupted, but it also included triumphs by scholars and copyists, thanks to whom much was also recovered and preserved. Summaries of the transmission are often found in modern editions of the plays, three of which are used as sources for this summary^{[nb 3]}

The plays of Euripides, like those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, were circulated in written form in the 5th century among literary members of the audience and performers at minor festivals, as aide-memoirs. However, literary conventions that we take for granted today had not yet been invented—there was no spacing between words, no consistency in punctuation nor in vowel elisions, no marks for breathings and accent (guides to pronunciation and hence word recognition), no convention to denote change of speaker and no stage directions, and verse was written straight across the page like prose. Possibly those who bought texts supplied their own interpretative markings. Papyri discoveries have indicated, for example, that a change in speakers was loosely denoted with a variety of signs, such as the equivalent of the modern dash, colon and full-stop. The absence of modern literary conventions, which are an aid to comprehension, was an early and persistent source of errors affecting transmission of the text. Errors crept in also when Athens replaced its old Attic alphabet with the Ionian alphabet, a change sanctioned by law in 403–402 BC, adding a new complication to the task of copying. Many more errors came from the tendency of actors to interpolate words and sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a law was proposed by Lycurgus of Athens in 330 BC '...that the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should be written down and preserved in a public office; and that the town clerk should read the text over with the actors; and that all performances which did not comply with this regulation should be illegal.'^[76] The law was soon disregarded and some actors continued to make their own changes up until about 200 BC, after which the habit dies out. It was about then that Aristophanes of Byzantium compiled an edition of all the extant plays of Euripides, collated from pre-Alexandrian texts, furnished with introductions and accompanied by a commentary that was 'published' separately. This became the 'standard edition' for the future and it featured some of the literary conventions that modern readers expect—there was still no spacing between words, little or no punctuation and no stage directions, but abbreviated names now denoted changes of speaker, lyrics are broken into 'cola' and 'strophai' or lines and stanzas, and a system of accentuation was introduced.

After this creation of a standard edition, the text was fairly safe from errors, apart from the slight and gradual corruption produced by the tedium of frequent copying. Many of these trivial errors occurred in the Byzantine period, following a change in script from uncial to minuscule, and many were 'homophonic' errors, when scribes accidentally substituted homophones for words in the text—equivalent in English to substituting 'right' for 'write', except that there were more opportunities for Byzantine scribes to make these errors because the Greek letters η, ι, οι and ει were pronounced similarly in the Byzantine period.

Around 200 AD, ten of the plays of Euripides began to be circulated in a select edition, possibly for use in schools, with some commentaries or scholia recorded in the margins. Similar editions had appeared for Aeschylus and Sophocles—the only plays of theirs that survive today.^[77] Euripides however was more fortunate than the other tragedians in the survival of a second edition of his work, compiled in alphabetical order as if from a set of his collect works, but without scholia attached. This 'Alphabetical' edition was combined with the 'Select' edition by some unknown Byzantine scholar, bringing together all the nineteen plays that survive today. The 'Select' plays are found in many medieval manuscripts but only two manuscripts preserve the 'Alphabetical' plays—often denoted L and P, after the Laurentian Library at Florence, and the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican, where they are stored. It is believed that P derived its Alphabet plays and some Select plays from copies of an ancestor of L, but the remainder is derived from elsewhere. P contains all the extant plays of Euripides, L is missing The Trojan Women and latter part of The Bacchae.

In addition to L, P, and many other medieval manuscripts, there are also fragments of plays recorded on papyrus. The papyrus fragments are often recovered only through modern technology. In June 2005, for example, classicists at Oxford University worked on a joint project with Brigham Young University, using multi-spectral imaging technology to retrieve previously illegible writing (see References). Some of this work employed infrared technology—previously used for satellite imaging—to detect previously unknown material by Euripides in fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university.^[78][79]

It is from such materials that modern scholars try to piece together copies of the original plays. Sometimes the picture is almost lost. Thus for example two extant plays, The Phoenician Women and Iphigenia in Aulis, are significantly corrupted by interpolations^[80] (the latter possibly being completed post mortem by the poet's son) and the very authorship of Rhesus is a matter of dispute.^[81] In fact, the very existence of the Alphabet plays, or rather the absence of an equivalent edition for Sophocles and Aeschylus, could distort our notions of distinctive Euripidean qualities—most of his least 'tragic' plays are in the Alphabet edition and possibly the other two tragedians would appear just as genre-bending as this 'restless experimenter' if we possessed more than their 'select' editions.^[82]

See Extant plays below for listing of 'Select' and 'Alphabetical' plays.

Chronology[edit]

The original production dates of some of Euripides' plays are known from ancient records, such as lists of prize-winners at the Dionysia, and approximations are obtained for the remainder by various means. Both the playwright and his work were travestied by comic poets such as Aristophanes, the known dates of whose own plays thus serve as a terminus ad quem for those of Euripides, though sometimes the gap can be considerable (e.g. twenty-seven years separate Telephus, known to have been produced in 438 BC, from its parody in Thesmophoriazusae in 411 BC.) References in Euripides' plays to contemporary events provide a terminus a quo, though sometimes the references might even precede a datable event (e.g. lines 1074–89 in Ion describe a procession to Eleusis, which was probably written before the Spartans occupied it during the Peloponnesian War).^[83] Other indications of dating are obtained by stylometry and this section therefore is an appropriate place to consider some aspects of his style as a Greek poet.

Greek tragedy comprised lyric and dialogue, the latter mostly in iambic trimeter (three pairs of iambic feet per line). Euripides sometimes 'resolved' the two syllables of the iamb (˘¯) into three syllables (˘˘˘) and this tendency increased so steadily over time that the number of resolved feet in a play can be understood to indicate the approximate date of composition (see Extant plays below for one scholar's list of resolutions per hundred trimeters). Associated with this increase in resolutions was an increasing vocabulary for tragic dialogue, often involving prefixes to refine meanings, allowing the language to assume a more natural rhythm while also becoming ever more capable of psychological and philosophical subtlety.^[84]

The trochaic tetrameter catalectic—four pairs of trochees per line, with the final syllable omitted—was identified by Aristotle as the original meter of tragic dialogue (Poetics 1449a21). Euripides however employs it here and there in his later plays.^[85] He seems not to have used it in his early plays at all, The Trojan Women being the earliest appearance of it in an extant play—it is symptomatic of a curious archaizing tendency evident in his later works.^[86][87]

The later plays also feature extensive use of stichomythia (i.e. a series of one-liners).^[88] The longest such scene comprises one hundred and five lines in Ion (lines 264–369). In contrast, Aeschylus never exceeded twenty lines of stichomythia; Sophocles' longest such scene was fifty lines and it is interrupted several times by αντιλαβή (Electra, lines 1176–1226).^[89]

Euripides' use of lyrics in the sung portion of his work shows the influence of Timotheus of Miletus in the later plays— the individual singer gained prominence and was given additional scope to demonstrate his virtuosity in lyrical duets between actors, as well as replacing some of the chorus's functions with monodies. At the same time, choral odes begin to take on something of the form of dithyrambs reminiscent of the poetry of Bacchylides, featuring elaborate treatment of myths.^[90] Sometimes these later choral odes seem to have only a tenuous connection with the plot, linked to the action only in their mood. The Bacchae however shows a reversion to old forms,^[91] possibly as a deliberate archaic effect or maybe because there were no virtuoso choristers in Macedonia, where it is said to have been written.^[92]

Extant plays[edit]

Key:

Date indicates date of first production.

Prize indicates a place known to have been awarded in festival competition

Lineage: S denotes plays surviving from a 'Select' or 'School' edition, A plays surviving from an 'Alphabetical' edition^[5]—see Transmission above for details.

Resolutions: Number of resolved feet per 100 trimeters, Ceadel's list^[93][94]—see Chronology above for details.

Genre: Generic orientation^[95] (see 'Transmission' section) with additional notes in brackets.

Lost and fragmentary plays[edit]

The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form, if at all. They are known through quotations in other works, sometimes as little as a single line, or through pieces of papyrus or partial copies in manuscript form; some are known thanks to the survival of part of a collection of hypotheses (or summaries) in papyrus, and others through being parodied in the works of Aristophanes. Some of the fragments are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstructions to be proposed.

A two-volume selection from the fragments, with facing-page translation, introductions, and notes, was published by Collard, Cropp, Lee, and Gibert,^[96][97] as were two Loeb Classical Library volumes derived from them,^[98][99] and there are critical studies in T. B. L. Webster's older The Tragedies of Euripides^[100] based upon what were then believed to be the most likely reconstructions of the plays.

The following lost and fragmentary plays can be dated, and are arranged in rough chronological order:

• Peliades (455 BC)
• Telephus (438 BC with Alcestis)
• Alcmaeon in Psophis (438 BC with Alcestis)
• Cretan Women (438 with Alcestis)
• Cretans (c. 435 BC)
• Philoctetes (431 BC with Medea)
• Dictys (431 BC with Medea)
• Theristai (satyr play, 431 BC with Medea)
• Stheneboea (before 429 BC)
• Bellerophon (c. 430 BC)
• Cresphontes (c. 425 BC)
• Erechtheus (422 BC)
• Phaethon (c. 420 BC)
• Wise Melanippe (c. 420 BC)
• Alexandros (415 BC with Trojan Women)
• Palamedes (415 BC with Trojan Women)
• Sisyphus (satyr play, 415 BC with Trojan Women)
• Captive Melanippe (c. 412 BC)
• Andromeda (412 BC with Helen)
• Antiope (c. 410 BC)
• Archelaus (c. 410 BC)
• Hypsipyle (c. 410 BC)
• Alcmaeon in Corinth (c. 405 BC) Won first prize as part of a trilogy with The Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis

The following lost and fragmentary plays are of uncertain date, and are arranged in English alphabetical order.

• Alope, or Cercyon

Notes[edit]

1. ^The epithet 'the most tragic of poets' was coined by Aristotle, probably in reference to a perceived preference for unhappy endings, yet it has wider relevance: 'For in his representation of human suffering Euripides pushes to the limits of what an audience can stand; some of his scenes are almost unbearable.'—B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 339
2. ^'The poet of the Greek enlightenment' is taken from W. Nestle, Euripides, Stuttgart (1901); 'Euripides the irrationalist' is from E. Dodds, C.R43 (1929), pp. 97–104
3. ^This summary of the transmission is adapted from a) Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxvii–xliv; b) L.P.E. Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction pp. lvii–lxv; c) E.R. Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction pp. li–lvi
4. ^παῦρον ⌊δὲ δὴγένος ἐν πολλαῖς

   εὕροις ⌊ἂν ἴσως

   οὐκ ἀπό⌊μουσον τὸ γυναικῶν.

   καί φημι ⌊βροτῶν οἵτινές εἰσιν

   πάμπαν ⌊ἄπειροι μηδ΄ ἐφύτευσαν

   παῖ⌋δας͵ ⌊προφέρειν εἰς εὐτυχίαν

   ⌊τῶν γειναμένων.⌋

   'Among many women, you might find a small class who are not uneducated. And I tell you that those who have no experience of children and parenthood are better off than those who do.'—Medea lines 1087–91. (Half brackets enclose words not transmitted by the fragment but supplied by the greater tradition (see Leiden Conventions). The word οὐκ supports a reading preferred by modern scholars (it is represented as κοὐκ in other sources)—Denys L.Page, Euripides: Medea, O.U.P. (reprint 1978), note 1087–89, p. 151)

References[edit]

1. ^Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.
2. ^Walton (1997, viii, xix)
3. ^B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 316
4. ^ ^abcMoses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. ix
5. ^ ^abL.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. lx
6. ^ ^abMoses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, pp. xviii–xix
7. ^A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press (1990), Introduction p. vii
8. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 329
9. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, pp. viii–ix
10. ^Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness, pp. 411–13.
11. ^Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction p. xi, (quoting translation by Murray)
12. ^ ^abDenys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. ix–xii
13. ^Robin Mitchell-Boyask, Euripides: Medea, Diane Svarlien (trans.), Hackett Publishing Company (2008), Introduction, p. xii
14. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 253
15. ^Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Cliff Notes on Greek Classics, Wiley Publishing Inc. (1998), pp. 147–48
16. ^ ^abcJustina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 252
17. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 317
18. ^Richard Rutherford, Medea and Other Plays. By Euripides, Introduction. Rev ed. London: Penguin, 2003. ISBN0-14-044929-9.
19. ^Plutarch, Life of Lysander, cited and translated by B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 337
20. ^David Barrett and Alan Sommerstein (eds), The Birds and Other Plays by Aristophanes, Penguin Classics 2003, p. 9
21. ^Duane Reed Stuart, Epochs and Greek and Roman Biography, Biblo and Tannen Booksellers and Publishers' Inc. (1928), p. 174
22. ^Alan H. Sommerstein, Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds, Penguin Books (1973), note 35, p. 241
23. ^David Barret (trans.), Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays (1964), p. 211
24. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. viii
25. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 316–17
26. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 318
27. ^E.R.Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction p. xl
28. ^translated by B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 317
29. ^John Gould, 'Tragedy in performance', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 265–67
30. ^D.J. Mastronade, 'European Tragedy and Genre', in Euripides and Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Century, M.Cropp, K.Lee and D. Sansone (eds), Champaign, Ill. (1999–2000), p. 27
31. ^C. Meier, The Political Art of Greek Tragedy, Trans. A. Webber, Baltimore (1993), pp. 4, 42
32. ^ ^abPhilip Vellacott, Euripides: The Bacchae and Other Plays, Penguin Classics (1954), Introduction p. 10
33. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 260
34. ^Neil Croally, 'Tragedy's Teaching', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 66
35. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.) Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 264
36. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 264
37. ^Hippolytus, lines 409–27, Moses Hadas (trans.), Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. 85
38. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. x
39. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 328
40. ^The Trojan Women lines 886–89, Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006); supporting comment from Introduction, p. x
41. ^ ^abB. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 327
42. ^Christopher Pelling, 'Tragedy, Rhetoric and Performance Culture', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 85
43. ^A Further Note on the Modernity of 'Hippolytus' Robert Skloot. The Classical Journal, Vol. 64, No. 5. (Feb., 1969), pp. 226–27. JSTOR.org
44. ^Bernd Seidensticker, 'Dithyramb, Comedy and Satyr-Play', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 52–33
45. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 326
46. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 261
47. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 325
48. ^B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 324
49. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), pp. xvi–xviii
50. ^B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 332
51. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), p. xvi
52. ^Justina Gregory, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 267
53. ^B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 332–66
54. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), p. 195
55. ^B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 334–35
56. ^Bernd Seidensticker, 'Dithyramb, Comedy and Satyr-Play', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 50
57. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 269
58. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 256
59. ^Medea 824 sqq.; Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction page vii
60. ^L. P. E. Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. lxxii
61. ^B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 338
62. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 317–18
63. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 252–53
64. ^David Barrett, Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays, Penguin Books (1964), p. 98
65. ^Robin Mitchel-Boyask, Euripides: Medea, Hackett Publishing Co. (2008), Introduction p. xii
66. ^L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. xl
67. ^B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 339
68. ^S. Philippo, Silent Witness: Racine's Non-Verbal Annotations of Euripides, Oxford University Press (2003), p. 22
69. ^ ^abL.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. xlii
70. ^Albert Heinrichs, 'Nietzsche in Greek Tragedy and the Tragic', in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 447
71. ^L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction pp. xl–xliv
72. ^U.V. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Euripides: Herakles Vol. 1, Darmstadt, p. 113, quoted by J. Gregory in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 255
73. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy' in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 255
74. ^Collard 1975, quoted by Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy' in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 259
75. ^Peter Levi, 'Greek Drama' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (ed.s), Oxford University Press (1986), p. 167
76. ^Plutarch Vit.Dec.Orat. 851e, cited by Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxix–xl
77. ^Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction p. xlii
78. ^'POxy Oxyrhynchus Online'. Papyrology.ox.ac.uk. 17 April 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
79. ^'Papyrology Websites'. Papyrology.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
80. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 259
81. ^William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge University Press (1964)
82. ^ ^abJustina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 254
83. ^A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press, Introduction pp. xl–xli
84. ^B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 337
85. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 257
86. ^M. Platnauer, Iphigenia in Tauris, Oxford University Press (1938), Introduction page 14
87. ^E.R.Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction p. xxxvi
88. ^John Gould, 'Tragedy in performance' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 281
89. ^A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press (1990), Introduction p. 91
90. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 258
91. ^B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 338
92. ^Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. xvi
93. ^E.B.Ceadel, 'Resolved Feet in the Trimeters of Euripides', Classical Quarterly xxxv (1941), pp. 66–89
94. ^William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge University Press (1964), p. 261
95. ^Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 254–58
96. ^Euripides (1995). Collard, C.; Cropp, M.J.; Lee, K.H. (eds.). Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume I. Aris & Phillips. ISBN0-85668-619-0.
97. ^Euripides (2005). Collard, C.; Cropp, M.J.; Gibert, J. (eds.). Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume II. Aris & Phillips. ISBN0-85668-621-2.
98. ^Euripides (2008). Fragments: Aegeus-Meleager (Loeb Classical Library No. 504). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-99625-9.
99. ^Euripides (2009). Oedipus-Chrysippus & Other Fragments. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-99631-3.
100. ^Webster, T. B. L. (1967). The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Methuen. p. 316.

Further reading[edit]

• Barrett, William Spencer (2007). West, M. L. (ed.). Greek lyric, tragedy, and textual criticism collected papers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-920357-1.
• Conacher, D. J. (1967). Euripidean Drama: Myth, Theme, and Structure. London: Oxford University Press.
• Croally, N.T. (2007). Euripidean polemic: the Trojan women and the function of tragedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-04112-0.
• Euripides (1968). Segal, Erich (ed.). Euripides: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Euripides (1983). Barrett, William Spencer (ed.). Hippolytos. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-814167-X.
• Euripides (1997). 'Introduction'. Plays VI. Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists. J. Michael Walton, introduction. London: Methuen. pp. vii–xxii. ISBN0-413-71650-3.
• Gregory, Justina (1991). Euripides and the instruction of the Athenians. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-10230-3.
• Ippolito, P. (1999). La vita di Euripide (in Italian). Naples: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II.
• Kitto, H. D. F. (1959). Greek tragedy: a literary study. New York: Barnes and Noble.
• Kovacs, David (1994). Euripidea. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN90-04-09926-3.
• Lefkowitz, Mary R. (1981). The lives of the Greek poets. London: Duckworth. ISBN0-7156-1721-4.
• Lucas, Frank Laurence (2012). Euripides and his Influence. New York: Barnes and Noble. ISBN9781258337124.
• Murray, Gilbert (1946). Euripides and His Age (2nd ed.). London: Oxford University Press.
• Powell, Anton, ed. (1990). Euripides, women, and sexuality. London: Routledge. ISBN0-415-01025-X.
• Scullion, S. (2003). 'Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs'. The Classical Quarterly. 53 (2): 389–400. doi:10.1093/cq/53.2.389.
• Segal, Charles, ed. (1993). Euripides and the poetics of sorrow: art, gender, and commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus, and Hecuba. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN0-8223-1360-X.
• Sommerstein, Alan H. (2002). Greek drama and dramatists. London: Routledge. ISBN0-415-26028-0.
• Webster, T. B. L. (1967). The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Methuen.

External links[edit]

• Works by Euripides at Project Gutenberg
• Works by Euripides at Faded Page (Canada)
• Works by or about Euripides at Internet Archive
• Works by Euripides at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Euripides with an English translation by Arthur S. Way. D. Lit. in four volumes, London, William Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4.
• Encarta's entry for Euripides (Archived 2009-10-31)
• (in French)AC-Strasbourg.fr
• Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Euripides, Trojan Women, 740–79; read by Stephen Daitz
• Euripidis opera omnia ex editionibus praestantissimis fideliter recusa, latina interpretatione, scholiis antiquis et eruditorum observationibus illustrata, 9 voll., Glasguae cura et typis Andreae et Joannis M. Duncan, 1821: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, vol. 6, vol. 7, vol. 8, vol. 9.
• Scholia of Euripides:
  • Scholia in Euripidem, Eduardus Schwartz (ed.), 2 voll., Berolini tyois et impensis Georgii Reimer, 1887–91.
• [1] A Commentary on Euripides' Bacchae.

Chūka Ichiban! (中華一番!, lit. The best in Chinese (food)) is a manga created by Etsushi Ogawa. In 1997, it was adapted into an anime television series directed by Masami Anno of the same name. The story is centered on a boy whose aim is to become the best chef he could be.

In 1995, Kodansha published the manga. From 1995 to 1997, it was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Magazine. However, during serialization, the character '真' was added, so from 1997 to 1999, it was serialized as Shin Chūka Ichiban!(真・中華一番!, True ver. - The best in Chinese (food)!).

Download Cooking Master Boy Episode 53 Sub Indo

An anime television series adaptation by Nippon Animation aired on Fuji TV from April 27, 1997 to September 13, 1998.^[1] In some other countries, the anime adaptation was also called Cooking Master Boy.

In November 2017, Ogawa started a sequel entitled Chūka Ichiban! Kiwami, published in Kodansha's Magazine Pocket app.^[2]

It was announced that the Shin Chūka Ichiban! manga series will receive an anime adaptation produced by Production I.G. Itsuro Kawasaki is directing and writing the series, with Saki Hasegawa designing the characters.^[3]

• 2Story
• 4Characters

Setting[edit]

The story takes place in 19th century China during the Qing Dynasty, where the Emperor was weakened and the country was close to chaos. It is also during a fictitious era called 'The Era of the Cooking Wars'. It was an era in which top chefs with different cooking styles tried their best to improve their skills and to become the best chef in China. It is a country where insulting a high-grade chef or fooling around with cooking could land a person in a jail, and impersonating a top-chef is as good as usurpation of authority. Chefs compete with each other in order to gain respect and even power, but also with the risks of losing everything.

The country of China has four major regions: Beijing, Szechuan, Shanghai, and Guangdong.

Story[edit]

After the death of Mao's mother, Pai, who was called the 'Fairy of Cuisine', Mao becomes a Super Chef in order to take the title as Master Chef of his mother's restaurant. However, before he takes his mother's place as Master Chef, he continues to travel China in order to learn more of the many ways of cooking, in the hopes of becoming a legendary chef, just like his mother. During his journey, he meets great friends and fierce rivals who wish to challenge him in the field of cooking.

Underground Cooking Society[edit]

The Underground Cooking Society, also called the Dark Cooking Society, is an organized group which aims to control all of China through the cooking field. Even though they already have a strong influence all over the country, they still search for all eight of the Legendary Cooking Utensils in order to gain absolute power. They do anything to win and exterminate those who get in their way. When they see a great chef who may become a threat to their master plan or if a chef beats one of them, they'll continue to send chefs to challenge that person until they lose. Their training is very strict, and cruel, and most trainees don't survive and often kidnap young children and forcibly disconnect them from their family through murder. To initiate a chef whose survived the training, they would sometimes scar that person's face and/or body. Once inducted into the organization, there's no turning back and trying to escape is suicidal. Those who fail a task for the organization meet with a terrible end.

Members of the Underground are branded with the mark of the organization. They also have powerful skills called the Dark Cooking Techniques, known only by members of the organization or those that they challenge. They are the most feared organization in all of China.

Legendary Cooking Utensils[edit]

In ancient times, a meteorite fell from the sky and was first found by Master Chef Shui Lei. Shui crafted eight cooking utensils from the meteorite. Not only were those eight high-class cooking tools, they also had mystical effects on the food they were used on. The eight cooking utensils were so powerful that Master Chef Shui Lei had to store them in eight separate locations of China, so people wouldn't have to fight over them.

The Legendary Cooking Utensils have immense power, whether they are being used by good or evil. If they are used by good, they can bring about great results that would make people happy. If they are used by evil, they can have destructive powers that could devastate all of China. Also, if a Legendary Cooking Utensil is used on something other than cooking (i.e. killing), its mystical powers would diminish.

Mentioned Legendary Cooking Utensils:

• Ever-Soul Knife

Stored within the Big Angelic Temple for several generations until Mao became the worthy successor. Not only Mao, but also Leon was found out to be worthy as well. Even though it was stored in a temple for so long, without anyone touching it, there was no sign of rust on the knife when it was brought out. When choosing its successor, the mark of a dragon would appear on the blade when it is held by the chosen chef. It has the ability to make every food it cuts, fresh, even if it has passed its expiration date. Unfortunately, after a failed attempt in stealing it, a member of the Underground, stabbed himself with it causing the knife to lose its abilities. After Mao's final battle against Fei, the knife regained its powers in order to save Fei.

• Coiled Dragon Pot

The first to be found by Mao and his group after going on their journey to find the Legendary Cooking Utensils. After putting together two pieces of a map, they figured out that it was hidden near the outskirts of Shanghai. Unlike the Ever-Soul Knife, the Coiled Dragon Pot was found in a place with no caretakers or even a temple. It was found inside a secret compartment behind a Kitchen God statue. At first, it seemed to be a rusted pot until Mao touched it. Being the chosen successor, Mao was able to turn it back into its original form. The Coiled Dragon Pot has the power to hasten the fermentation process to an amazing speed.

• Holy Copperware

Found in Jiu Hua Mountains. Originally it was dug up from the farmlands of Jiu Hua many years ago. Not knowing of the mystical powers it possessed, the merchants decided to melt it down so it could turn into spare tools. However, before it could be melted down, a con artist, Wong Seiyo, bought it from them. Since he saved it from being melted down, the Holy Copperware decided to let him be able to use the mystical powers even though he wasn't a worthy successor. Using its powers, Seiyo decided to take advantage of the people of Jiu Hua by using the land's legends to make the people believe he was a god. When Mao arrived, he stopped Seiyo's scheme, made the people believe in their homeland again, and found another Legendary Cooking Utensil. The Holy Copperware has the power to instantly soften dried ingredients, such as dried abalone (which would usually take three or more days to do).

Characters[edit]

Main characters[edit]

Liu Mao Xing

The 13-year-old protagonist of the story. Mao basically grew up in the kitchen watching his mother cook in her restaurant. Due to this, he grew up learning his mother's cooking skills and also ended up with the same love for cooking his mother had. Although, even though he had that kind of knowledge, Mao didn't cook much and everyone just thought of him as a kid who just played around and who didn't even know how to cook. It wasn't until his mother's restaurant was in jeopardy that he decided to cook. To everyone's surprise, Mao was a genius chef. Seeing his talent, General Lee sends him on a journey to become a Super Chef. Eventually, Mao becomes the youngest Super Chef in history and decides to travel the country even more, so he can learn more about cooking techniques.

Even though he doesn't have much experience, Mao has the pride of a truly experienced chef and having learned from his mother that a chef's purpose is to create a dish that makes people happy, he always put his customers' needs first and is always able to make a creative dish that greatly satisfies them. Along with his curiosity in wanting to learn more about cooking, Mao also has unique taste buds; having the ability to remember every single food he's eaten and its ingredients, he could even identify or name all of the ingredients in the food he's currently eating. These traits make Mao a strong contender in the battlefield of cooking.

Mei Li

The 16-year-old daughter of Chouyu. Originally, she was a helper at the Yang Spring Restaurant. She fell in love with Mao after seeing how much he loves cooking and how he also cares about others. She only knows a little about the cooking field, but she's useful when it comes to little facts and often tries to help Mao with various other things. After finding out that Mao was leaving the Yang Spring Restaurant to travel China, she was heartbroken since she thought that she could live a life with him. She eventually made up her mind and decided to also leave the restaurant, in order to travel with him (In the manga, she did not accompany Mao in his journey around China). Mei often gets into arguments with Shirou and always ends up slapping or hitting him. She also gets very jealous every time another woman gets near Mao. An example of her animosity towards women that gets close to Mao is when his sister, Karin, visits him to bring their mother's cooking materials; she says that Karin will never be good for Mao, that is until she finds out that she is his sister. In another occasion, when the female chef, Anzu, finally realized the way of making singe cuisine, she kissed Mao as a sign of gratitude, but Mei Li became angry and began to express her anger by hitting Shirou. Although, she says that her number one rival for Mao's heart is his love for cooking. She's a spitting image of her deceased mother, Meika.

Zhi Lao (Shirou)

A 12-year-old mischievous travelling companion. His mother is Japanese, making him half Japanese and half Chinese. He first met Mei Li and Mao when they found him passed out, due to hunger, in the forest (In the manga, he bumped into Mao after stealing food from people). He left his village when he was 10 so he can fulfill his promise of becoming a Super Chef. Although, during his two-year travel, he didn't become one, so he pretended to be one when he returned to his village (which was moments before meeting Mao and Mei Li). He was soon found out when a cooking official said his Super Chef badge was fake. After finding out that Mao was a Super Chef, he made himself Mao's apprentice and decided to travel with him. He often teases Mei Li and constantly grabs her breasts, resulting in him being constantly hit by her. He may not be a cooking genius, but he knows more about cooking than Mei Li and is only somewhat average in cooking. Shirou often gets into trouble and also causes trouble for the other group members. He later becomes a chef-in-training at Yang Spring Restaurant.

Xi Er (Shell)

A Dim Sum master from San Sei. He is also called 'Steel Staff Shell'. He is in his twenties and is considered to be the youngest Dim Sum Master. He always carries with him a heavy steel staff, which he uses as both a weapon and a cooking utensil. Several yellow stars are engraved on the end of the staff, signifying the number of Super Chefs he has defeated. After challenging Mao to a cooking battle, he engraved a black star on his staff because he had lost. He one day hopes to replace that black star with a yellow one.

Shell is considered to be a nomad; he often encounters Mao and his friends during their travel. Starting at a young age, he has travelled around China in order to learn more about cooking. He has a very optimistic view on life and often scolds Shirou (He's had a bad impression of Shirou ever since Shirou unknowingly made him a bad plate of food).

Shell is very athletic and also happens to be good at math. He later travels with Mao and the others in search for the Legendary Cooking Utensils. His fookien name is Ji Long.

Li Wen (Leon)

Leon initially introduced himself as a member of the Dark Cooking Society; he is known for using seafood as primary ingredients for his dishes and can prepare them to their utmost potential thanks to his superior knives and the skills to wield them. He first appeared at the Yang Spring Restaurant demanding that Ruoh give him one of the Legendary Cooking Utensils that he says he is entitled. Ruoh then said that he had to battle Mao in order to find out the utensil's true successor. The battle was won by Mao and Leon soon revealed everything to him after realizing that he still loves cooking, and like Mao, Leon is also the successor to the Ever-Soul knife. Leon revealed that he betrayed and escaped the Dark Cooking Society after realizing the kind of organization they are.

It turns out that a young Leon was a cook for the Yang Spring Restaurant a few years ago. Like Mao, Leon was a natural genius in the field of cooking, having learned and comprehended just about everything Chouryuu had to teach him in just one month. He was also a kind child; not wanting to kill animals, but when he does, he places a red paper talisman on the dead animal and prays for it. Since he wanted to learn more about cooking, he left the restaurant and ventured around China. During his travels, he began to grow a strong urge to become a better cook, but when he couldn't find anymore suitable things to learn, he decided to join the Dark Cooking Society in order to learn their Dark Cooking Techniques. While in the Underground, his knife skills evolved to an unreachable level. Corrupted by the organization, he became even more obsessed in becoming the best chef. He sought out Luo Xie, the best knife forger in China, and had him forge the best knives. Luo Xie called his creation the Seven-Star Knives, the best knife set in all of China. On a cliff top, when Luo Xie said that he will one day create a better set, Leon was enraged, and in a fit of anger, stabbed him in the abdomen, causing him to fall off. This traumatized Leon and began to make things right from that point. He is the only person who possesses the coveted Seven-Star knives. Although, on the episode 'The True Owner of the Seven-Star Knives', he encounters an Underground female chef, Shan An, who possesses duplicates.

He travels with Mao retrieving the Legendary Cooking Utensils, in order to prevent the Dark Cooking Society from possessing them.

Sanche

A 14-year-old chef from Shanghai who used to be a 4th level chef at Yang Spring Restaurant. Initially, he didn't like Mao because he knew that Mao would eventually take his spot at the restaurant and then he would have to leave. He wasn't liked much in the restaurant since everyone thought that he was a lazy cook who didn't even like cooking in the first place. It wasn't until Mao found him practicing his cooking skills, late at night, that Mao realized that he likes to cook. Sanche revealed to him that his father was a great chef, but he had extremely strict teaching methods. Due to the stress, Sanche ended up cutting his hand and instead of being worried, his father scolded him even more causing his mother to interfere. Since she interfered, she ended up getting the blame. Not being able to stand it anymore, Sanche ran away from home and started working in the Yang Spring Restaurant. He ended up getting a scar from when he cut his hand and he says that he has difficulty cutting ingredients because every time he sees his scar, he's reminded of all those terrible events. After talking Sanche into not giving up as a chef, they worked all night to come up with an idea that would convince Chouyu, the Vice Chef at Yang Spring, to not kick Sanche out of the restaurant. Though they succeeded in doing so, Sanche decided that he would go back home to make up with his father, since he still loves him, and to also take up his father's strict training again, so he can hone his skills even more.

When Sanche encountered Mao and his group in Shanghai, he was already a Head Chef at his father's restaurant and had greatly improved his cooking skills, especially his knife skills.

Lan Fei Hong

A handsome 16-year-old genius chef. Although he is considered to be a more knowledgeable chef than Mao, he is the one chef that could be considered as Mao's true rival in cooking. Unlike Mao, Fei is a calm and collected chef who can always do things in an organized manner. He was first introduced as one of Mao's opponents during the Super Chef tournament. Even though he was an opponent who seemed to have a cold personality, he helped Mao a few times during the competition. He, along with Mao, made history when they both passed the Super Chef test at the same time. It turned out that he knows about Mao's mother, and that he sees her as his savior.

When he was young, his entire family was killed by the Underground Cooking Society that also kidnapped him. He was brought to them and went through strict training in order to create perfect dishes and see who has the greatest potential to become a member of the Underground Cooking Society. He was forced to go through torturous training everyday or face death or torture. When he escaped, he passed out in front of Kikkaro Restaurant. Pai found him, treated his wounds, and fed him herbal soup that rejuvenated his body. Before meeting her, Fei thought of cooking as this horrible thing that caused him so much pain. When he met her, he realized that cooking was something where you create dishes that would make people happy. After learning from her he went to travel around China.

When Mao encountered Fei again, Fei was a chef working for the Dark Cooking Society and was about to become the Head Chef of the Imperial Kitchen. Mao couldn't believe that Fei was a bad guy and challenged him to a cooking battle that would be judged by the Emperor himself. Mao ended up winning the battle and found out that Fei was being manipulated by the Underground. After being healed by the Legendary Cooking Utensils, Fei revealed that he was drugged by the Dark Cooking Society, so he would turn evil and become one of their pawns in taking over China. When he found out that the organization that killed his parents and kidnapped him was the Dark Cooking Society, he wanted to seek revenge and infiltrated their headquarters. Unfortunately, that was when he was captured and drugged. Even though he was being manipulated, his actions were still bad. General Lee ordered Fei to protect Mao as he looks for the Legendary Cooking Utensils (not to make it obvious that he was being lenient to Fei). So, Fei ended up travelling with the rest of the group.

Pai

The legendary chef from Szechuan and Mao's deceased mother. She was the former Master Chef of Kikkaro Restaurant. Pai was called the 'Szechuan Fairy', or the 'Fairy of Cuisine', and was one of the most respected chefs in all of China. Even though she didn't directly teach Mao her cooking techniques, she did teach him her ideals. She taught him how to use cooking to make people happy and healthy.

Pai was such a great chef that she was considered a threat to the Underground Cooking Society. In her early years as a chef, the Underground would always send chefs to battle her, which she always won. She even made a notebook compiling all the information she gained from battling chefs from the Dark Cooking Society, which would include the Dark Cooking Techniques that they used against her. Mao would eventually come to have possession of this book.

In the manga, it is revealed that she died from exhaustion. After her former pupil, Shouan, became a Super Chef, he stole all the chefs that were cooking in her restaurant, making her do all the work on her own. Though she died, her teachings would live on in her son, Mao.

Minor characters[edit]

Chouryuu

The Vice Chef of Yang Spring Restaurant. Chouyu is known to be one of the best chefs in Guangzhou. He's usually the main chef in the restaurant since Ruoh rarely cooks anymore. He has strict rules for the chefs-in-training in the kitchen. Many say he has a steel heart and barely changes his expressions, but they still respect him greatly. Ruoh seems to be the only person that he listens to and is also the only person that can irritate him. He becomes Mao's Master and is also Mei's father. Even though he is very skilled in cooking, he is a bad fisherman. He tried to challenge Ruoh in fishing, but just ended up irritated by Ruoh's win.

Ruoh

The Master Chef of Yang Spring Restaurant. A skilled, experienced, and very well respected Chef in Guangzhou. He may not seem like it at first glance, but he is an extremely well-built man with amazing power. He has the nickname of 'Superman Chef' in Guangzhou. He uses the Devil Cow Knife (which is used to chop cows' heads in one swing, and butcher it in another) to display his skill, 'The Skill of God', which uses his extreme strength (though, he no longer uses it too often due to his old age). Ruoh is often seen drinking alcohol. He is also Chouyu's Master and is one of the four Cooking Elders of Guangzhou.

Shouan

Mao's first cooking rival. He used to be Pai's best apprentice until an accident left him scarred and unable to cook properly. After quitting, he turned rotten and returned to take over Kikkaro Restaurant. He ended up being the major contributor to Pai's death. Although, after losing a cooking battle, judged by General Lee, against Mao, he was forced to permanently quit as a chef, which was the consequence of losing. Although, he didn't stay gone for too long, later showing up to challenge Mao once again, but this time as a chef for the Underground. After once again losing to Mao, he was prepared to sacrifice himself, along with everyone else, by blowing up the boat they were on. When he was about to fall to his death, Mao grabbed his arm and tried to save him. After a few words by Mao, Shouan understood his love for cooking and was able to let go of his hatred for Mao and Pai. Unfortunately, it was too late, and if Mao didn't let go of Shouan's hand, Mao would fall with him. Having turned good again, he saved Mao from falling with him by cutting his own hand off and falling to his death (In the anime, Shouan simply slipped from Mao's hand and fell to his death). Before he died, he gave Mao the other half of Pai's book, which had detailed information on the Underground.

Admiral Lee Hong Yue

An Admiral for the Imperial Army of China. He is the Master Chef of the Emperor's Imperial Kitchen which makes him a highly skilled chef and basically the number one ranked chef in China. He's the one who sent Mao on his journey in becoming a Super Chef after seeing his natural talent and infinite potential. Lee often bumps into Mao during their journey and usually gives him other tasks, in the hopes of making Mao a great chef.

Karin

Mao's older sister. She works at the Kikkaro Restaurant as a waitress. When her mother died, she was the one left to take care of the restaurant.

Anime theme songs[edit]

Opening Themes

1. 'Sora'(空, Sky) by Maki Ohguro (episodes 1-18)
2. 'Iki mo Dekinai'(息もできない, I Can't Even Breathe) by Zard (episodes 19-36)
3. 'Kimi Sae Ireba'(君さえいれば, If Only You Were Here) by Deen (episodes 37-52)

Ending Themes

1. 'Aoi Sora ni Deaeta'(青い空に出逢えた, Met in the blue sky) by Arisa Tsujio (episodes 1-20)
2. 'Mineral' (ミネラルMineraru) by Kaori Nanao (episodes 21-36)
3. 'Kaze no You ni Jiyuu'(風のように自由, Free as the Wind) by Keiko Utoku (episodes 37-52)

References[edit]

1. ^'中華一番！' (in Japanese). Nippon Animation. Archived from the original on February 21, 2015. Retrieved February 4, 2019.
2. ^Pineda, Rafael Antonio (October 14, 2017). 'Chūka Ichiban!/Cooking Master Boy Manga Gets Sequel in November'. Anime News Network. Retrieved February 4, 2019.
3. ^Hodgkins, Crystalyn (February 3, 2019). 'Chūka Ichiban!/Cooking Master Boy Manga Gets New Anime'. Anime News Network. Retrieved February 3, 2019.

External links[edit]

• Chuuka Ichiban (manga) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia